THE 



BOTANIST'S COMPANION 



BY 



FROFISSOR BAI.FOUE. 



^4 




Glass. 
Book- 



^^w^^ 



^t 



THE 



BOTANIST'S COMPANION 



DIRECTIONS FOR THE USE OF THE MICROSCOPE, 

AND FOR THE COLLECTION AND 

PRESERVATION OF PLANTS, 



GLOSSAEY OF BOTANICAL TEEMS. 



PEOFESSORABALFOUR 



EDmBURGH: 

ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK. 

I860. 



^/r>3 



. ':m 



Exchange 
Western Ont. Univ. Llbvaiy 
Apr- £5- 1938 






PRINTED BY R. AND R. CLARK, EDINBURGH. 






V 



PREFACE. 



The object of the present brochure is to aid the student in the use 
of the Microscope, and in the prosecution of Vegetable Histology ; 
to direct him as to the mode of collecting and drying plants, and o f 
forming a Herbarium ; to give useful hints in regard to botanical 
excursions ; and to furnish explanations of the more important 
terms employed in botanical works. 

It is compiled partly from the edition of the Author's Manual of 
Botany for 1860, and partly from the Appendix to his Class Book 
of Botany ; and it is intended to be a pocket companion to the 
student in his practical researches. The Microscope has become 
such an essential instrument in the prosecution of Botany, that it is 
necessary to acquire a thorough knowledge of its use, and to under- 
stand the errors which may arise from unguarded observation. The 
formation of a Herbarium is also required in the study of classifi- 
cation, and in the diagnosis of genera and species ; while the proper 
understanding of botanical terms and a correct nomenclature form 
the basis of descriptive Botany. The accurate definition of technical 
terms is an important part of scientific study. In mastering 
these terms, the student acquires, as it were, the alphabet of the 
science, without a thorough knowledge of which he cannot be 
expected to make progress. 

Edinburgh, A'pril 1860. 



.#■: 



THE 

BOTANIST'S COMPANION. 



I. — On the Use of the Microscope in Botanical Kesearches. 

The Microscope is a most important instrument in education, and it 
is essential for the due understanding of the structure and physiology of 
plants. The study of the microscopical structure of organized bodies is 
termed Histology {tcrh, a web or tissue, and Xoyo?, discourse). Dr. 
Carpenter remarks : — " The universe which the microscope brings under 
our ken, seems as unbounded in its limit as that whose remotest depths 
the telescope still vainly attempts to fathom. Wonders as great are dis- 
closed in a speck, of whose minuteness the mind can scarcely form any 
distinct conception, as in the most mysterious of those nebulae, whose 
incalculable distance baffles our hopes of attaining a more minute know- 
ledge of their constitution. And the general doctrines to which the 
labours of microscopists are manifestly tending, in regard to the laws of 
organization and the nature of vital action, seem fully deserving to take 
rank in comprehensiveness and importance with the highest principles yet 
attained in physical or chemical science. It is by pursuing, by the aid 
which the microscope alone can afford to his visual power, the history of 
the organic germ, from the simple and homogeneous form which seems 
common to every kind of living being, — either to that complex and most 
heterogeneous organism which is the mortal tenement of man's immortal 
spirit, or only to that humble Protophyte or Protozoon, which lives, and 
grows, and multiplies, without showing any essential advance upon its em- 

B 



2 LENSES OF VAEIOUS KIXDS. 

bryonic type, that the physiologist is led to the grandest conception of the 
unity and all-comprehensive nature of that creative design, of which the 
development of every individual organism, from the lowest to the highest, 
is a separate exemplification, at once perfect in itself, and harmonious with 
every other." 

The microscope {ju,ix^o;, small, and o-xotsm, I see) is an instrument 
for enabling the eye to see distinctly objects which are placed at a very 
short distance from it, or to see minute objects that would otherwise be 
invisible. It has been used with great success in the examination of 
vegetable structure. To it we are indebted for a knowledge of the various 
vessels and cells which enter into the composition of the different parts of 
plants, of the circulation of fluids, and of ciliary movements, as well as for 
the facts connected with the development of the embryo. It is an instru- 
ment, however, which requires to be used cautiously ; and the conclusions 
drawn from it ought to be carefully weighed, more especially when the 
observations have been made with high magnifying powers. 

Lenses. — Before proceeding to notice the construction of simple and 
compound microscopes, it will be advantageous to notice the dififerent 
kinds of lenses used, and the sources of error which require to be guarded 
against in their preparation. The chief forms of lenses used are, the 
double-convex (fig. 4), with two convex faces ; plano-convex (fig. 3), with 

one face flat and the other convex ; double- 
concave (fig. 2), w^th two concave faces ; 
and plano-concave (fig. 1), w^ith one flat 
and one concave face. Sometimes, also, a 
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. meniscus (fig. 5) is used, with a concave 
and a convex face, and a sharp edge, and a concavo-convex (fig. 6), 
with a concave and convex surface and flat edges. Convex lenses with 
sharp edges cause parallel rays to converge ; while concave lenses with 
flat edges cause them to diverge. The lenses used in microscopes are 
chiefly convex, — the concave lenses being employed to make certain 
modifications in the course of the rays passing through convex lenses, 
whereby their performance is rendered more exact. The magnifying 
power of a single lens is its focal length. The principal focus is 

Figs. 1-6. Different kinds of lenses— 1. Plano-concave. 2. Double concave. 3. Plano-con- 
vex. 4. Double convex. 5. Meniscus. 6. Concavo-convex. 3, 4, 5, are sharp-edged lenses, 
and cause convergence. 1, 2, 6, are flat-edged, and cause divergence. 




SPHERICAL AND CHROMATIC ABERRATIONS. O 

the npint to which parallel rays converge after reflection or refractioD. 
The focus of a double convex lens is at half the distance of a plano- 
convex, having the same curvature on one side. Ten inches is the 
mean focal length of the human eye. In the use of ordinary lenses, 
there are sources of error from the form of the lens, and the nature of 
the material of which it is made. "When parallel rays fall on a double- 
convex or a plano-convex lens, they are brought into a focus at a certain 
distance : but it is found that no lens with a spherical surface can bring the 
rays of light coming from one point exactly into the focus at another point. 
Hence arises what is called spherical aberration. In this kind of aber- 
ration, the objects at the circumference of the field of the microscope are 
not in focus at the same time as those in the centre. Moreover, the 
material of which the lens is made acts difierently on the different portions 
of each ray, and separates the white light into different colours, which have 
various degrees of refrangibility. This gives rise to chromatic [xi^t^"-^ 
colour) aberration. To remedy these defects, certain combinations of 
glasses have been adopted, so that the light traversing one lens through 
the centre may pass through near the margin of another. The confusion 
produced by these aberrations may be greatly lessened by diminishing the 
pencil of light ; for instance, by employing a stop or diaphragm, which 
lessens the aperture of the lens, and cuts off the peripheral rays. In 
lenses of low power, such as are used in the simple dissecting microscope, 
these aberrations will not cause much confusion. It is only when high 
powers are required that these aberrations must be done away with, — the 
aperture being increased without interfering with definition. The invention 
of Wollaston's doublet with two lenses, and Holland's triplet with three, 
was with the view of diminishing, as far as possible, these aberrations. In 
this, however, they were not successful, for coloured images were still 
produced. Their lenses were constructed of the same kind of material ; 
and it was afterwards found that in order that lenses might present the 
object uncoloured, or be what is called achromatic (a, privative, and 
X^^(^»t colour), it was necessary to use glasses of two different densities. 
Achromatic lenses, or such as are nearly free from aberration, are con- 
structed by placing together glasses of different dispersive powers, and of 
different forms. The usual achromatic consists of a double-convex lens, 
made of plate or crown-glass, and a plano-concave, made of flint-glass 
(fig. 7), fitted accurately to it, and cemented by Canada balsam. Some- 




4 SIMPLE AND COMPOUND MICROSCOPES. 

times three lenses are used, a double concave of flint-glass, placed between 
^ « two double convex of crown-glass, and ground to certain 
curvatures ; and in that case they cannot be cemented. The 
most perfect combination of lenses, for high powers, consists 
of eight distinct lenses : — In front, a triplet of two plano- 
convex lenses of crown-glass, with a plano-concave of dense 
flint-glass between them ; next, a doublet composed of a 
I'ig- 7. double convex lens of crown-glass, and a double concave of 
flint; and at the back, another triplet of two double convex lenses of 
crown, with a double concave of flint between them. By this combina- 
tion, an angular aperture of 170^ has been obtained with an objective of 
rVth of an inch focus. This is about the limit ; for 10° more would bring 
the rays to a straight line. 

Microscopes are of two kinds — Simple and Compound. By the Simple 
microscope, objects are viewed through a single lens, or through two or 
three lenses placed together, so as to form doublets or triplets. The 
glass is arranged so that it can be brought over the object, and adjusted, 
by means of a rack and pinion, or by some other contrivance, to its exact 
focal distance, — the object, when opaque, being seen by light thrown from 
above, and when transparent, by light transmitted from below. This in- 
strument, when used with single lenses or doublets, is the best for ordinary 
botanical investigations, more especially for dissections. The combination 
of three lenses approaches too near the object to be easily used. A very 
high power may be obtained by doublets formed of plano-convex glasses, 
or by means of the lenses termed Coddington's or periscopic, consisting 
of two hemispherical lenses, cemented together by their plane faces, 
having a stop between them, or rather having a groove in the whole 
sphere filled with opaque matter. The chief objections to the simple 
microscope are the fatigue attendant on long-continued investigations, 
and the small field of view. In the simple microscope, glasses of 
the following focal lengths may be employed — viz., IJ inch, i, J, J; and, 
if very minute objects are to be examined, of ~, —, or -^-^ of an inch. 

When examining minute plants, such as Diatomace^e and Desmidiese, 
during an excursion, it is useful to have a simple microscope similar to 
that represented in figs. 6 and 9. It consists of a Wollaston's doublet. 

Fig. 7. a. An achromatic or apJanatic lens, consisting of a donWe convex letisof plate-glass, 
and a plano-concave of flint-glass. %, Section of the plano-concave lens. 



SIMPLE MICROSCOPE. 5 

fixed in a round plano-concave brass disc (fig. 8, a), attached to a small 
brass handle (fig. 8, h). For ordinary botanical purposes a lens magnify- 
ing 65 to 70 diameters is enough ; but the lenses may be procured with a 
power of 150 to 220 diameters. On the plane side of this brass disc, there 
is a ring of silver (fig. 8, c), in which a thin piece of glass is fixed, also 
supported by a brass handle, which acts as a spring, so as to keep the two 
rings in contact. In the handle of the first-mentioned disc, there is a 
screw (fig. 9, d), which passes through it, and by the motion of which the 



Pli 




Kg. 8. 



Fig. 9. 



two handles can be separated or allowed to come close to each other. By 
this means an exact focal distance can be obtained. A drop of fluid con- 

Figures 8 and 9 represent Gairdner's portable simple microscope. 

In fig. 8 there is given a front view of the instrument, showing the posterior silver ring, c, 
enclosing a piece of thin glass, separated and turned aside from the disc, a, containing the doublet, 
to which the eye of the observer is applied. Pig. 9 exhibits a lateral view of the instrument, 
with the screw, d, by means of which the handles are separated or approximated, so as to bring 
the object into focus. 



b COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. 

tainiDg Diatoms, or any minute object, is placed on the outside of the thin 
glass in the silver ring, and it is then covered by a similar piece of thin glass, 
which adheres by means of the fluid. The object being brought into focus, 
as in fig. 9, the observer can distinguish the characters of the microscopic 
plant, so as to determine whether it is necessary to take specimens home 
for more careful examination by the compound microscope. 

In the Compound microscope there are two sets of lenses, — the one 
called the object-glass or objective, the other the eye-piece or ocular. The 
first receives the rays from the object, and bringing them to new foci, 
forms an image, which the second treats as an original object, and mag- 
nifies it just as the single microscope magnified the object itself. The 
image is inverted, but this may be remedied by making the rays pass 
through another set of lenses in the tube of the microscope, called the 
erector. In the construction of the object-glasses, great care is taken to 
render them achromatic. Those made by the most eminent London 
makers consist of two or three compound lenses, which cannot be used 
separately, but are fixed together in a tube. In the case of high powers, 
the object-glasses are also provided with an adjustment for the thickness 
of the glass covering the object to be viewed. This adjustment makes up 
for the refraction caused by the passage of light through thin glass of dif- 
ferent thickness, and is accomphshed by altering the distance between the 
second and third pair of lenses in the object-glass. This adaptation is espe- 
cially necessary in the case of a glass with a large angle of aperture. In 
Boss's microscope, when the mark on the cylinder coincides with the longer 
mark on the' tube of the objective, the adjustment is perfect for an un- 
covered object ; when the coincidence is with the short mark, the proper 
distance is obtained to balance the aberration produced by glass y~ of an 
inch thick. The eye-piece, also, must be so formed as to be free from 
error. That used is called Huyghens', and consists of two plano-convex 
lenses with their plane sides towards the eye, and placed at a distance 
apart equal to half the sum of their focal lengths, with a diaphragm inserted 
midway between the lenses. In this eye-piece, the lens next the eye is 
called the eye-glass, the other the field-glass. By the Huyghenian or 
negative eye-piece the object is seen inverted. The Eamsden or positive 
eye-piece consists of two plano-convex glasses, with the convex surfaces 
directed towards each other ; by it objects are seen erect, and it is often 
used as a micrometer eye-piece, that is.^ for measuring objects. The eye- 



COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. 7 

pieces supplied with the best microscopes are usually three ; and they 
are so constructed, that, with each of the object-glasses, they give a cer- 
tain amplification of the object, the powers being in the proportion of 1, 2, 
and 3, or 1, 1 J, and 2^. In the best microscopes there is also an achro- 
matic condenser or eclairage, through which the light reflected from the 
mirror passes. The amplification by means of an eye-piece in the com- 
pound microscope enables us to use an object-glass of a lower power than 
would otherwise be necessary. This kind of microscope, when well con- 
structed, gives a flat and colourless picture of the object, with clearness of 
definition. The observer can use it for a length of time with less fatigue 
than when employing the simple microscope. Weak eye-pieces and strong 
object-glasses are to be recommended. The eye-piece does not add either 
clearness or distinctness to the object, and when it is very powerful the 
field of view becomes too small to take in the whole image formed by the 
object-glass ; for the magnitude of the field of view and the strength of 
the illumination diminishes according to the magnifying power of the eye- 
piece employed. The lower powers are of use in searching for the object 
to be examined, which may thus be more easily found by a higher power. 
For the lower power a linear amplification of from 20 to 50 diameters, and 
for a higher power a linear amplification of from 300 to 500 diameters at 
most, will give a sufficiently wide range of powers. The powers are 
increased by a more powerful eye-piece or object-glass, or by both, or by 
lengthening the tube of the microscope. 

In examining vegetable structures, an instrument magnifying 150 to 
200 diameters is usually sufficient ; but in some instances higher powders 
are required. Achromatic object-lenses of 1^, f , and ^ of an inch, are 
recommended as the most essential; and two eye-pieces should be 
provided, one of about 1^ and the other of 2J inches in length. The 
instrument should have both a coarse and a fine adjustment ; and it is of 
importance that it should be made to incline at an angle, or to stand 
horizontally. A moveable stage is also useful, so that the different parts 
of the object may be viewed without being touched by the fingers, and a 
spring-holder to fix the objects on the stage. 

In figure 10 a compound microscope is represented. The stand, or 
base, consists of a strong tripod, a, supporting two upright pillars, &, &, 
between the upper parts of which an axis works. This carries the 
whole of the optical parts of the instrument which can be adjusted ta 



8 



COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. 



any inclination, horizontal, vertical, or intermediate. The stage, d^ 6, 
is firmly attached to the axis, as is also the double mirror, /. The 
triangular bar, ^, has a rack on its posterior part, which is worked by a 
pinion, the milled heads of which are seen at ^, h. The body, z, screws 
firmly into the arm,^; the achromatic object-glasses are screwed into the 
body at m ; the Huyghenian eye-piece slides into the other end of the body. 
The mirror is plane on one side, and concave on the other, and is fitted with 

a universal movement, so as 
to be inclined in any desired 
position. The milled heads, 
^, A, by being revolved, raise 
or lower the body, z, and 
constitute the coarse adjust- 
ment ; the fine adjustment is 
effected by turning the milled 
head, 'p. The object to be 
examined is placed on the 
stage, c?, and retained in the 
required position by the slid- 
ing piece, e. The quantity of 
light admitted through the 
instrument may be modified 
by the diaphragm, r, which 
consists of a plate of brass 
with four apertures of diffe- 
rent diameters, made to re- 
volve on a central pin or 
axis fixed to the bottom of 
the stage. Provision is also 
made for adding a polarizing apparatus. In addition to the four holes 
mentioned as needed to admit the requisite amount of light, the diaphragm 
is furnished with a fifth hole, into which a Nicol's prism may be 
screwed, forming the polarizer ; the analyzer being screwed into the 
upper part of an adapter previously to its being attached to the body, i. 
The polarizer is mounted on a double tube, so as to be capable of being 
evolved by turning a large milled head at the bottom. A condensing 

Fig. 10. Ordinary compound microscox^e. 




Fig. 10. 



COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. y 

lens for illuminating opaque objects may be fitted into the hole at the 
corner of the stage ; it is so arranged that it can be used in any required 
position or angle. Among the objects often furnished with the microscope 
is a plate of selenite, which, if laid under many animal and vegetable 
structures while being examined by polarized light, will cause them to 
assume beautiful colours. Nachet has invented a binocular microscope by 
which the objects are seen in relief. 

Very good students' instruments are made by Smith and Beck in 
London, and by Nachet and Oberhauser in Paris. One of the latter as 
used by Dr. Bennett, is shown in fig. 11, which is taken from his 
lectures on Clinical Medicine. The figure is one-fourth of the real size 




rig. 11. 

of the instrument. The body consists of a telescope tube eight inches 
in length, held by a split tube three inches long. It may be elevated or 

Fig. 11. Oberliauser's portable student's microscope. 



10 COMPOUND MICKOSCOPE. 

depressed by the hand by a cork-screw movement, and this constitutes 




Jig. 12. 

the coarse adjustment. It is attached to a cross-bar and pillar, at the 




rig. 13. 
Figures 12 and 13 represent Gruby's portable compound microscope one-half its real size. 
Fig. 12. The instrument in its case. Fig. 13. The instrument mounted. A full description is 
given by Dr. Bennett in the Edinburgh Monthly Medical Journal for December 1846. 



COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. 



11 



lower portion of the latter of which there is a fine adjustment screw. The 
stage is three inches broad, and two and a half inches deep, with a circular 
diaphragm below it. The base of this portable instrument is loaded with 
lead so as to give it steadiness. A similar instrument is made by Nachet, 
in which there is a broader stage, and a broader base, as well as a means 
of inclining the body of the instrument. It has been preferred by botanical 
students in Edinburgh, and it is cheaper than Oberhauser's. The follow- 
ing are the powers (linear measurement) of Nachet's student's compound 
achromatic microscope : — * 



Objectives 
(,Objkct- 

Glasses). 


Oculars (Eye-Pieces). 


1 


2 


3 


1 


70 


90 


140 


2 


190 


250 


400 


5 


280 


360 


600 



As a portable compound microscope is sometimes wanted by a student. Dr. 
Bennett has given the accompanying figures of one recommended by Gruby 
of Paris. In fig. 12 the instrument is shown in its case, and in 13 it 
is mounted. The woodcuts are exactly one-half the real size, and give a 
good idea of the instrument, a detailed description of which is not re- 
quired. In fig. 14, a representation is given of one of Smith and Beck's 
microscopes for students. A is the brass stand, supported firmly on three 
feet, and having two upright flat cheeks, to the top of which the stage- 
plate, c?, is fixed. Into the stage-plate is screwed an upright round tube, 
to which is attached an open tube, ^, in which the body of the instrument, 
/^, slides. By moving the body up and down in this tube, the coarse 
adjustment is efiected, and when the instrument is brought near to the 
object on the stage-plate, d^ a finer adjustment is made by means of the 
screw with the milled head, e, which either raises or depresses the part 
by which g is attached to the upright tube. The mirror is represented at 5, 
supported on trunnions, and capable of motion upwards or downwards 



* The price of the instrument, with all these powers, is 190 francs, exclusive of duty and 
carriage ; without No. 2 ocular, and No. 5 objective, it is 150 francs. 



12 



COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. 



SO as to reflect the light on the object placed on the stage-plate; c is the 
diaphragm, or stop, or perforated plate attached to the stage, with the 
view of shutting off the extreme rays of light. The object glass or objective 
is placed at the lower end of the instrument, /, and the eye-piece or ocular, 
at the upper part, h. 

In fig. 15 a diagram is given to explain the mode in which the com- 
pound microscope acts. In this figure, o is the object, above which is seen 
the triple achromatic object-glass or objective, consisting of three achro- 
matic lenses, which are com- 
bined in one tube ; e c is the 
eye-piece or ocular, consisting 
of two plano-convex lenses, one 
at e, being the eye-glass, and the 
other at c, the field-glass. Three 
rays of light are represented as 
proceeding from the centre of 
the object, and three from each 
end of it. These rays have a 
tendency to proceed so as to 
form an image of the object at 
a, but coming in contact with 
the field-glass c, they are made 
to converge and meet at &, where 
the diaphragm is placed to in- 
tercept all light except what is 
^'^g- 1^- rig- IS- necessary for the formation of a 

perfect image. The image formed at h is viewed as an original object 
by the observer through the eye-glass e. 

Micrometer. — In measuring the size of microscopic objects, a micro- 




Pig. 14. Smith and Beck's compound microscope for students. A, brass stand, supported on 
three feet; h, mirror supported on trunnions; c, diaphragm; d, stage-plate on which tlie object 
is placed ; e, screw with milled head for fine adjustment ; g, brass tube in which the body of the 
instrument is moved, so as to effect the coarse adjustment; /, the object-glass or objective; h, 
the eye-piece or ocular. 

Pig. 15. Diagram to show the mode in which the compound microscope acts. O, an object, 
with three rays of light from its centre, and three fi'om each of its ends ; e c, eye-piece, consisting 
of two plano-convex lenses — one at e, the eye-glass, the other at c, the field-glass ; h, diaphragm; 
a, the point where an image would be formed if the rays were not made to converge by the lens c. 



MICROMETERS. 13 

meter (f^tiK^h^ small, and ^sr^av, a measure) is employed. The stage micro- 
meter consists of a piece of glass, ruled with fine lines by means of a diamond 
point, at some known distance apart, such as the Tooth or xoooth or 2500th of 
an inch. A mode of ascertaining the magnifying power of the compound 
microscope is founded on the assumption, that the naked eye sees most 
clearly and distinctly at the distance of ten inches. If a divided scale be 
placed on the stage, and distinctly seen magnified through the instrument, 
let a rule be held at ten inches' distance from the right eye, while the 
observer uses, at the same time, his left eye in looking at the other scale 
through the microscope, and let the rule be gently moved so that it is seen 
to overlap or lie by the side of the magnified picture of the other scale, — a 
comparison as to how many of its known divisions correspond with a 
number of those on the magnified scale, will indicate the magnifying power. 
Upon a similar principle a pair of compasses may be substituted, whose 
points being placed on the stage are separated till they cover or mark off 
so many spaces as magnified by the instrument. If they cover 1 magnified 
space, and correspond to 2, 3, or more known spaces on the rule, then the 
instrument is said to magnify 2, 3, or more times linear that known space. 
If T^th of an inch is found to cover 2 inches on the rule, the instrument 
magnifies 200 times ; if 3 inches, 300 times ; if 4 inches, 400 times, and 
so on. In this way is determined the magnifying power of any com- 
bination of lenses, and the scale which is magnified is called the object- 
glass micrometer. The size of objects may be measured by placing 
them directly on this micrometer ; but it is obvious that they cannot 
under high powers be brought into focus at the same time as the lines of 
the micrometer. An instrument called the eye-piece micrometer is there- 
fore generally used. It consists of a known scale ruled on glass, and placed 
in the focus of the upper glass of the eye-piece. The glass is divided by 
lines varying from ^^th to T^th of an inch apart, and is placed either in the 
focus of the eye-lens or below the field-lens. It is observed with it how 
many of its divisions correspond with one division magnified by the micro- 
scope. Thus, if with an instrument which is known to magnify 250 
diameters linear, it is found that 1 space of the magnified micrometer cor- 
responds with 5 of the eye-piece micrometer, the size of the object will be 
ith of the known scale. If the scale be ToWth part of an inch, and the 
object is seen to correspond to 1, or to 4, or to 5 of those spaces, then its 
size is the xofeth or xijooth, or xoWth part of an inch. In using the eye- 



14 MICROSCOPIC APPARATUS. 

piece micrometer, the marked side of the glass is put undermost. With 
this instrumeut, when using a magnifying power of 500 or 600 diameters, 
we can estimate distances from 5000th to rsWth of an inch with tolerable 
precision. Other kinds of micrometers are also employed, such as the 
cobweb micrometer, where, by the motion of a delicate screw, fine wires 
or cobwebs are made to separate from each other. Welcker's micrometer 
has been of late recommended as surpassing the cobweb screw micrometer 
in elegance of principle and in cheapness. The exact size of objects can 
only be determined by actual measurement; but at the same time the 
size may sometimes be conveniently compared with that of any other 
familiar microscopic object, such as a human blood disc, or the like. 

Microscopic Apparatus. — In delineating mmute structures, it is 
useful to have the image thrown on paper by means of a camera-lucida^ or 
small prism, which can be easily attached to the microscope. In the 
apparatus sent along with microscopes will be fomid a compressorium, for 
the purpose of applying pressure to objects whilst they are under examina- 
tion, troughs for holding such plants as Chara, which are to be seen in 
water, and various instruments for the dissection and examination both of 
animal and vegetable structures. In testing the power of an instrument, 
certain objects are used, in which peculiar markings occur, which can only 
be properly seen by a fine instrument. Either artificial or natural objects 
may be chosen as test-objects. The former have been prepared by Robert, 
a Konigsberg optician, and consist of glass plates, on which are ruled, with 
a diamond, systems of a hundred lines, which, 10 by 10, approach closer 
together and are finer, according to a definite standard. With most 
instruments only the 6th and 7th sj^stems can be distinctly made out to be 
composed of separate lines. Superior instruments reach the 8th and 9th. 
No instrument has yet reached the 10th system, with its component lines. 
The best test -objects are the natural ones, as being regular and uniform in 
their markings, such as the scales of Podura plumbea or common Spring- 
tail, of Lepisma saccharina or sugar-louse, of Hipparcha janira or common 
meadow butterfly, Pontia brassica or cabbage butterfly, the hair of the 
larva of Dermestes or bacon-beetle, muscular fibrillse, and the minute 
markings of the Diatomacese, as Pleurosigma hippocampus. Certain mark- 
ings occur in these test-ohjecfSj which can only be seen properly by good 
microscopes. 

In viewing objects under the microscope, they must be placed on slips 



POLARIZING APPARATUS. 15 

or slides of glass, which should be of a uniform size, not less than three 
inches by one ; and they should be covered with round or square pieces 
of very thin glass, -g^th to xoath of an inch thick. The slides ought to 
be made of thin plate-glass, and the covers of very thin crown or plate- 
glass. In examining recent vegetable structures, it is best to moisten 
them with water. When the parts are dry, thin sections may be made either 
by means of slicing instruments, or by a sharp knife. Many dry objects 
are well seen when immersed in Canada balsam. To preserve objects in a 
moistened state, the substances used are alcohol, a mixed solution of salt 
and alum and corrosive sublimate, water containing a small quantity of 
creasote (5 grains to the ounce), and glycerine. The objects, in such 
instances, are placed in shallow glass cells, or they are laid on the slides 
and covered with thin glass, which is cemented by means of japanner's 
gold size, or black japan varnish. The methods of proceeding are after- 
wards described. 

Polarization and Polarizing Apparatus. — When a ray of light is 
reflected or refracted in certain peculiar conditions, it acquires remark- 
able properties, and is said to be polarized.* Light is polarized by 
reflection, simple refraction, double refraction, and by absorption. Double 
refraction is seen in certain crystals which have the power of separating a 
ray of light passing through them into portions. By absorption is indicated 
the property possessed by certain transparent media of absorbing or 
stopping a part of a ray of hght and transmitting the remainder. In the 
case of common or unpolarized light it is supposed that the vibration of 
luminous particles takes place in more planes than one — two of these planes 
being at right angles to one another, and the particles vibrating first in one 
plane and then in another. Polarized hght, on the other hand, is produced 
by vibrations in one plane. 

Difference between Common and Polarized Light.f 

A Bay of Common Light, A Pay of Polarized Light, 

1. Is capable of reflection, at obhque 1. Is capable of reflection^ at oblique 
angles of incidence, in every angles of incidence, in certain 
position of the reflector. ' positions only of the reflector. 

2. Penetrates a plate of tourmaline 2. Penetrates a plate of tourmaline 

* Derived from the supposed analogy to the poles of a magnet, 
t Pereira on Polarized Light, p. 48. 



16 POLARIZATION. 

(cut parallel to the axis of the (cut parallel to the axis of the 

crystal) in every position of the crystal) in certain positions of the 

plate. plate, but in others is wholly 

intercepted. 

3. Penetrates a bundle of parallel 3. Penetrates a bundle of parallel 
glass plates, in every position of glass plates, in certain positions 
the bundle. of the bundle, but not in others. 

4. Suffers double refraction by Ice- 4. Does not suffer double refrojction 
land spar, in every direction, by Iceland spar, in every direc- 
except that of the axis of the tion, except that of the axis of 
crystal. ' the crystal. In certain positions 

it suffers single refraction only. 

A polariscope is used to ascertain vv^hether hght has undergone 
polarization. This consists of two parts, one for polarizing the light, called 
the polarizer, the other for examining the light, called the analyzer or test. 
In the compound microscope a prism of Iceland spar (prepared by dividing 
the oblique rhombic prism into two wedges and then joining the two edges 
by Canada balsam), is placed under the stage as a polarizer, and a similar 
prism is placed over the eye-piece as a test. The Canada balsam separates 
the two images of the doubly refracting spar to such an extent that one 
only is seen through the prism. Two thin plates of tourmaline may be 
used instead, and in that case the light is polarized by absorption. "When 
light reflected from the mirror through the polarizer is examined by the 
analyzer it is found that, upon revolving either the one or the other, the 
light is twice completely stopped on each revolution, and the field of view 
darkened. To exhibit the phenomena of polarized light, interpose between 
the polarizer and analyzer a thin plate of some doubly refracting substance, 
which is called the depolarizer. This depolarizer divides the ray into two, 
or produces two systems of waves polarized in planes at right angles to each 
other. One of these systems traverses the depolarizer more slowly than the 
other, and thus the two intersect each other, or interfere, and in this case 
colour is usually produced. 

A writer in the ^' North British Re^dew," for 1856, makes the 
following observations on the polarizing microscope: — Certain struc- 
tures in minerals and plants, and on the tissues and various parts of 
animals, are wholly invisible in the microscope. In the cornea and 



POLARIZING MICROSCOPES. 1 7 

crystalline lenses of animals in composite minerals, and in simple mine- 
rals, such as amethyst, analcime, and apophyllite, in a great variety of 
crystals, to which the name of circular has been given, and in plants, 
there are beautiful organisms arising from differences in density, to which 
the human eye, even if assisted by the best microscopes, is absolutely 
blind, when viewed by common light. This light as it comes from the 
sun, and from artificial flame, consists of, or may be divided into, two 
kinds of light, as electricity may be divided into vitreous and resinous, or 
magnetism into north polar and south polar. Thus divided, common 
light is said to be polarized, and the two portions exhibit different 
properties when reflected from, or transmitted through bodies. If we 
suppose a cylindrical beam of common light to be composed of different 
parts, Hke a number of shillings arranged in a cylindrical row with the 
queen's heads lying in all directions — then, if one half of the shillings, 
separated from the other half, have all the queen's heads standing 
upright, and if the other half have all the queen's heads lying hori- 
zontally, we shall have an idea of polarized Hght. Now, the sepa- 
ration of common from polarized light may be effected by making light 
pass through several plates of glass, at an angle of about 55"" ; all the 
reflected light will be polarized like the cylinder of shillings with the 
queen's heads upright, and the transmitted light (when the plates are 
sufficiently numerous) like the cylinder with the heads lying horizontally. 
Light similarly reflected from a single polished surface of transparent or 
black bodies, not metallic, will also be polarized. Common light may be 
divided into two polarized pencils, by passing through certain crystals, 
such as Iceland spar or quartz. Each pencil is polarized oppositely, and 
when a rhomb of Iceland spar is cut into two parts, and these parts are com- 
bined so that one of the pencils is hindered from reaching the eye, it con- 
stitutes a Nicol's prism, now used in the polarizing microscope. In certain 
crystals, such as tourmaline and herapathite (the sulphate of iodoquinine), 
one of the pencils is absorbed, and plates of these substances, therefore,, 
are used in microscopes as polarizers. When polarized light has passed 
through any transparent body, a change is made visible by looking through 
another polarizer placed transversely to the first polarizer, which is called 
the analyzer. The structure of the microscopic object is thus displayed in 
different colours, or in different shades of white light, the colour or the degree 
of light depending on the thickness of the different parts of the object. 
The forms thus disclosed to the eye are at once splendid and beautiful. 

B 2 



18 MICROSCOPIC RE-AGENTS. 

The polarizing microscope, simple and compound, was first con- 
structed and used by Sir David Brewster in 1815. In the Simple Polariz- 
ing Microscope, a single lens or a doublet with a piece of tourmaline the 
size of the pupil, as the analyzer, is placed between it and the eye ; the 
object is then examined by polarized hght produced by reflection or 
otherwise. The magnifier and analyzer may be united in a lens of 
tourmaline. In the Compound Polarizing Microscope, the analyzing 
Nicol's prism is placed immediately between the object glass, and another 
Nicol's prism, or a small rhomb of spar, presenting one of its pencils to the 
object, is placed beneath the object. Along with the polarizing apparatus, 
there is generally sent a plate of selenite (which is a film of sulphate of 
lime or gypsum) of such a thickness as to polarize a blue of the second 
order. This plate is used to show weak polarized tints, as well as to 
show off the colours of polarizing structures by displaying them on a blue 
ground. When thus exhibited, all the negative tints (as they may be 
called) are diminished, and all the positive ones are increased ; and the 
effect of the plate is to mark the true character of the phenomenon. 

In proceeding to use the microscope, it is necessary to have a 
variety of tools and apparatus to aid in preparing objects for investigation. 
These may be arranged beside the observer in such a way that they shall 
be always within his reach. * A small tray or box, with divisions, contain- 
ing a pair of needles in handles (such as are used for crotchet needles), a 
sharp knife or razor, a section-knife (such as that invented by Valentine, and 
which bears his name), scissors, and a pair of sharp or fine needle-pointed 
forceps, about three inches long, are among the most essential instruments 
required. Glass slides may be arranged also upon the same tray for common 
use, and the thin glasses for covers should be kept in a small box by them- 
selves. In manipulating the object to be examined, certain re-agents are 
required. These are : — 1. Distilled water ; 2. Alcohol in the strong state, 
and also diluted in the proportion of about 1 part to 10 of distilled water, 
it is the best preserving agent ; it removes colour and also air. 3. Ether, 
which dissolves resins, fats, and oils. 4. A solution of liquor potassse diluted 
to about 1 to 20. It swells up, and sometimes separates membranes of cells 
and tubes when they exist in condensed layers. 5. A solution of iodine 
in lodde of potassium diluted to the following strength, — namely, 1 grain 

* The following details are partly condensed from Scliaclit's treatise on the microscope, and 
from the works of Hannover, Quekett, Jabez Hogg, and Beale. 



MICROSCOPIC RE- AGENTS. 19 

of iodine to 3 grains of iodide of potassium, and an ounce of distilled water. 
6. Chromic acid diluted in the proportion of about 1 to 80 or 40 of dis- 
tilled water. The last two re-agents chiefly act by colouring the cell 
walls or the contents of the cells. 7. Sulphuric acid. 8. Oil, such as 
the finest of that obtained from coal, and known as mineral oil, is to be 
recommended for examining and preserving objects in. It does not 
become rancid, nor has it any affinity for oxygen. For the examination 
of pollen and spores there is nothing better. 9. One part of dry muriate 
of lime and 3 of water makes also an excellent solution for preserving 
objects which do not contain starch. 10. Glycerine is the best preserving 
agent for cells containing starch. 11. Canada balsam ; and 12. Turpentine, 
are -most useful re-agents and preservative materials for many dry pre- 
parations. 13. Nitric acid ; used for separating cells. 14. A solution of 
hydrochloric acid may also be found useful in remo^ang deposits of car- 
bonate of lime. 15. A solution of acetic acid. 16. A solution of carbonato 
of potass or soda. These sixteen substances should be arranged in stoppered 
glass bottles, fitting into a stand or box, so as to be of easy access, and 
little camel's hair brushes, pipettes, and glass rods, should be arranged 
beside these bottles, in order to apply the fluid to the object. Lastly, the 
student should provide himself with a small note-book of good drawing- 
paper, on which he ought constantly to practise the delineation of the forms 
or outlines of the objects seen, and he should endeavour to colour them 
also when required. 

Numerous other requisites and appliances will suggest themselves 
during the course of investigations, and especially such as will secure 
cleanliness of the object, and of everything used in the research. 1. One 
who has any regard for his instrument will never suffer it or its lenses to be 
bandied by those unaccustomed to their use. 2. The microscope, when 
not in use, must be kept under cover, generally under a glass shade. It 
should never be exposed in a chemical laboratory. 3. Its lenses must be 
cleansed when necessary by a cloth which is used only for that purpose, or 
by dry elder pith. The cloth best adapted for this purpose is old and 
frequently washed linen. 4. A separate cloth of a coarser kind is to be 
used for drying and wiping the slides and covers. 5. Covers of a middle 
size, from concave disks, such as watch-glasses, up to the size of a wine- 
glass without the stem, or other bell-shaped jars, are also required to pro- 
tect the objects, if it is necessary to leave them for any length of time. 



20 3I0DE OF USING THE MICROSCOPE. 

The microscope is used to the best advantage in a room which 
receives its h'ght from the north, or west, or both. The light which is 
reflected from a white and motionless cloud opposite to the sun, is the best 
that can be obtained. If gas-light is to be used, it ought to be corrected 
or modified b}^ passing it through blue glass shades before reaching the 
mirror ; but for exact observation, dayhght is always to be preferred. 
When observations are made at night, a sperm-oil lamp is used, and the 
light is transmitted to the mirror through a plano-convex lens, called a 
condenser. To correct the unpleasant glare attendant on the reflected 
light from an ordinary mirror, Mr. Handford makes a mirror of thin 
concave-glass, three inches in diameter, the back rendered white by plaster 
of Paris. This is mounted on brass, and fitted over the frame of the ordi- 
nary silvered mirror, thus not requiring the latter to be removed. The 
advantage is, that the whole rays reflected from the surface of plaster of 
Paris are brought into one focus, together with those reflected from the 
surface of the glass, and thus an equal and brilliant light is produced. In 
viewing opaque objects, the light is thrown by the condenser directly on 
the object, and sometimes a metallic speculum, called a Lieberhuhn, is 
connected with the object-glass, by means of which an additional supply 
of light is obtained. In conducting microscopic observations, great steadi- 
ness of the instrument is required, which should accordingly be set upon a 
very firm and sufficiently large table, so that aU the apparatus hitherto 
mentioned shall be within reach of the observer. It is proper also to 
begin the examination of objects with the lower magnifying powers, and 
to pass gradually from them to the use of the higher powers. By such 
means a far larger portion of the object is seen, and a more correct idea 
is obtained of the relations of the parts when considered as a whole. 
Object-glasses, varying from 30 to 50 diameters, are the best to begin with. 
The eye-glass of lowest power, that is, the longest one of the series, is also 
the one which ought generally to be used in the first instance, and as long 
as the power can be increased by object-glasses of greater magnifying 
power, any more powerful eye -piece should not be used, because by the 
use of such eye-pieces the image is rendered more obscure, while less light 
is obtained for its display. 

Sources of Errors of Observation. — Extraneous or accidental 
objects may be present, and may be derived from various sources. 
Thus, water too long used may bring before the eye both plants and 



ERRORS OF OBSERVATION. 21 

animals of the lowest forms, which otherwise would not have been pre- 
sent. Fresh water is absolutely necessary, and it may be even recently 
distilled. Particles of dust, or fibres from the cloths used in cleaning the 
glasses, may also add to the confusion. These consist, generally, of fibres 
of paper, linen, woollen, cotton, or silk fabrics, or minute hairs from the 
brushes used in manipulation. Air-bubbles are almost invariably a source 
of confusion to the microscopic observer in his first attempts ; but once 
seen and studied, they no longer distract the attention, and the micro- 
scopist soon gets into the habit of disregarding their presence. They 
generally appear in the form of circles of larger or smaller diameter, with 
a dark black-looking rim, seen by transmitted light ; while with incident 
or reflected light, their rim appears of a white colour. Pressure under a 
glass cover causes them sometimes to assume very irregular shapes, but 
possessing the same properties in their margin or outhne in their behaviour 
with the light. It is also necessary to become familiar with the appear- 
ances of the lowest forms of animal and vegetable life, such, for instance, 
as the common forms of infusoria, the yeast, and such like plants ; and the 
difierent forms of mould. It must not be forgotten also, that the various 
menstrua used in manipulation contain elements which properly belong to 
them, and which must therefore be distinguished ; for example, the epi- 
thelium of the saliva, the blood corpuscles which may be in serum, and 
crystals which may be deposited in various fluids which are used as re- 
agents. A peculiar motion, known as " molecular motion," is also a 
phenomenon which must be recognized. It is pecuhar to all very small 
particles or molecules, when they float in a very thin fluid medium. It is 
best seen in the fine granules of milk when mixed with water, in the milky 
juices of the plants, and may be observed very distinctly in solutions of 
India-rubber, or caoutchouc, when dissolved in ammonia. A magnifying 
power of 400 or 500 diameters is the best for this observation. Another 
class of deceptions originates in the eye itself. These are the '' muscse 
volitantes," the nature of which is described as follows by Dr. W. Mac- 
kenzie in his Treatise on the E3''e. 

-' The vision of objects on the surface or in the interior of the eye has 
attracted attention, chiefly in relation to a symptom, to which the name of 
muscce volitantes has been given. Any spectrum, or visual appearance, 
which is apt to impose on the mind, and lead one to think that flies are 
moving before the eye, is called a musca volitans (fig. 16). 



22 



CAUSES OF ERRORS 



"The condition comprehends those sensations which arise from, 1. 
The layer of mucus and tears on the surface of the cornea ; 2. Corpuscles 
between the external surface of the cornea and the focal centre of the eye ; 
3. Corpuscles between the focal centre of the eye and the sensitive layer 
of the retina. 

" In hanging the head over the microscope, especially if one is affected 
with catarrh at the time, the globules, by gravitating to the centre of the 
cornea, not unfrequently appear to the observer so as to impede his view 
of the object, till by the act of nictitation he clears them away. In tele- 
scopic observations, also, the muco-lacrymal spectrum is apt to prove a 
source of annoyance. Thus, in looking at the sun through a tinted glass, 
the observer may be unable to distinguish the spots on that body, being 
perplexed by what seems the reflection of some part of his own eye inter- 
posed between it and the sun. This is caused by the layer of mucus and 
tears on the surface of the cornea. 

" If one looks at the flame of a candle two or three feet distant, or at 
the sky, through a hole made in a blackened card with the point of a fine 

needle, or through a convergent 
lens of short focus, such as the 
eye-glass of a compound micro- 
scope, on steadily regarding the 
luminous field presented to 
view, four sets of spectra will be 
seen (fig. 16), independent of 
the muco-lacrymal spectrum. 
The most remarkable appears 
nearest to the eye, and consists 
of twisted strings of minute 
pearly globules, hung across 
the field of view (fig. 16 a). 
The second in point of remark- 
ableness, and the farthest of the 
four from the eye, consists of watery-like threads, destitute of any globular 
appearance, and depending chiefly from the upper part of the field 
(fig. 16 Z?). I call the former \hQ pearly spectrum, and the latter the 

Fig. 16. Four sets of spectra, which are apt to cause errors in observations with the 
microscope. 




Fig. 16. 



IN OBSERVATIONS. 2o 

watery spectrum. In two distinct planes, between those occupied by these 
two spectra, float two sets of globules, not aggregated into threads, but 
insulated. These constitute what I call the insulo- globular spectra. 
The individual globules of the set farther from the eye, being hazy 
and ill-defined, may be compared in appearance to small grains of 
sago (fig. 16 c). The globules of the set nearer to the eye are clear in 
the centre, exteriorly to which they present a sharp black ring, and still 
more exteriorly a lucid circumference (fig. 16 c^). These four sets of 
spectra never mingle with one another, so as to change the order in which 
they stand before the eye ; but the pearly spectrum always appears the 
nearest; then the sharply defined insulo -globular ; then the obscurely 
defined globules ; and farthest away the watery threads. 

"Almost every eye, even the most healthy, and which has never 
attracted the possessor's attention by muscse volitantes, exhibits the pearly 
spectrum, on being directed towards a luminous field, through a fine pin- 
hole, the eye-glass of a compound microscope, or a convex or concave lens 
of short focus. I have given it the same name of the pearly spectrum^ from 
its resemblance to a string of pearls. Prevost had already called it appa- 
rence perlee^ or simply perks. 

" The lines of the pearly spectrum are hung across the field of vision 
as often transversely as vertically. On first directing the eye towards the 
luminous field, in one or other of the methods just mentioned, perhaps only 
a very few small pearly globules are perceived ; but after steadily regard- 
ing it for a short time, numerous strmgs of them are discovered, generally 
twisted in different forms, and presenting a variety of knots, loops, and 
agglomerations. Sometimes they are so numerous as to form an extensive 
shower or cloud. The pearly threads are of different lengths ; some of 
them very short, others stretching across the whole field. Not unfre- 
quently some of them end abruptly in a sort of bulb. The globules or 
pearls forming the threads or rosaries, seemed joined together merely by 
apposition, -without being contained in any tube. Sometimes, however, 
the globules are rather indistinct, and then the threads approach to a 
tubular appearance. The globules are always in single rows. They 
appear destitute of any nucleus. They are not all of one diameter, but 
are all smaller than the globules of the insulo-globular spectra. I have 
not satisfied myself that all the pearly threads occupy the same plane, 
although it is very evident that they are behind the insulo-globular spectra. 



24 FOCAL ADJUSTMENT OF MICROSCOPE. 

'' That portion of the pearly spectrum which appears in the centre of 
the field of view has but little real motion, less perhaps than the watery- 
spectrum which is seen beyond it. Both partake, of course, in the motion 
of the eyeball ; and this gives to both a wide apparent motion. But if the 
field be examined towards its circumference, or if the eye be suddenly 
rotated upwards, other pearly spectra appear, which it is difficult or im- 
possible for the observer to bring directly before him ; and which, when 
he succeeds in some measure in doing so, quickly subside again out of view, 
partly by a real motion of their own, partly by a wide apparent motion, 
owing to their obliquity in respect to the axis of vision. It is these last 
spectra, chiefly, which produce the pearly muscse volitantes." 

There are also various optical phenomena caused by refraction, and 
which are necessary to be attended to. They depend, for the most part, 
upon a bad adjustment of the focus, or illumination of the object. The 
appearances are also most frequently associated with an increase of the 
magnifying power, and especially with the use of powerful eye-glasses. 
Large grains of potato-starch, pollen-grains, the thickened substance of 
woody tubes, and the cells of cartilage, are among the most common objects 
which exhibit such optical phenomena, which consist in a feeble and gene- 
rally yellowish colouring of the edges of the objects when seen with parti- 
cular foci. 

Focal Adjustment of the Microscope. — The regulation of this 
adjustment is based on the fact, that the microscope can only afford a 
view of one surface of an object at any given time, so that nothing is dis- 
tinctly seen which lies above or below such a focal plane at that time ; and 
the more flat the field of vision, the clearer and better will be the view of 
objects in that plane if the adjustment is correct. The more perfect the 
object-glass, and the greater the angle of aperture, * the more exact is this 
focal plane, and the more sensitive is the instrument to any small altera- 
tion of focus. The focal adjustment is made and varied by what is called 
a fine adjustment screw, and which is sometimes graduated ; and the ac- 
curate adjustment of the object is judged of by the sharpness of the deline- 

* The angle of aperture is thfit made by two lines from opposite ends of the aperture of tlie 
object-glass with the point of focus of the lens. A glass \dth a large angle of aperture shows 
objects clearly. The angle varies usually from 50* to 100°. Many glasses, however, are made 
with a much higher angle. Ross makes glasses of 170*^ of angular aperture. These are useful 
for obser^aag minute organisms, such as Diatoms. 



MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS. 25 

ation of the image, as well as by the fineness and clearness of the out- 
line. An experienced microscopic observer always uses the instru- 
ment with his finger and thumb grasping the fine adjustment screw, and 
would not be content with his observation, although it was limited to a 
mere peep of the object, unless he had made the fine focal adjustment for 
himself. 

Preparation and Selection of Objects for Examination. — 
Opaque objects require merely to be made smooth or level on one side, 
and to be fixed on the other. If the object is to be viewed by transmitted 
light, a section or slice sufficiently thin must be procured ; a common sharp 
knife, a razor, or Valentine's section-knife are the instruments to use. 
They must be moistened with water, and sometimes it is advisable to 
make the section under water. If the object is very delicate it may be 
laid between two pieces of cork, and the whole cut through. Sections 
should be made in various directions, so that a correct knowledge 
may be obtained of the relation of the component parts. Maceration in 
water, and tearing the parts asunder with fine needles, are the best 
methods for obtaining the ultimate tissues of plants. Thin glass plates to 
cover the object under the microscope must be invariably used. They 
prevent evaporation, and preserve the moisture about the object ; they 
prevent the object-glass from being covered with vapour, and so rendered 
obscure, and, lastly, they produce a slight pressure, by v/hich the elementary 
parts of the substance may become separated from each other, so as to lie on 
one plane. The thin covers are not absolutely necessary where very low 
powers are used. In placing the object on the stage care must be taken 
not to bring it in contact with the object-glass of the instrument. It is also 
to be remembered that, in a compound microscope, the image is inverted, 
and that, consequently, the object is moved in a direction contrary to that 
of the image. 

The following list of tissues to be examined by the student of Vegetable 
Histology, is taken from the preparations used in the microscopical 
demonstrations given to the pupils of the Botanical Class in the University 
of Edinburgh. 

Cellular Tissue, — Sea- weeds, Confervse, Moulds and other Fungi; 
Lichens, Liverworts, pith of Elder, and of the Rice-paper plants (Aralia 
and ^schynomene), outer bark as of the Cork and of Elephantipes, succu- 
lent roots stems, and fruits, as Orange and Lemon. 

C 



26 MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS. 

Nucleated Cells, — Onion, Yeast plant, Vinegar plant, ripe fruit of 
Strawberry, Smut, ovules or very young seeds. 

Independent Cells. — Ked-snow plant (Protococcus nivalis). 

Thickened Cells. — Shell of Coco-nut, stone of Peach, Cherry and Nut, 
seed of Ivory-Palm and Date, gritty matter of Pear, scales of Cone. 

Fitted or Porous Cells. — Elder, stem of Common Balsam, outer cover- 
ing of seeds of Gourd and Almond. 

Spiral Cells. — Leaves, stems, and aerial roots of many Orchids, as 
Oncidium and Pleurothallis ruscifolia, and racemiflora, leaf of Sphagnum, 
episperm of seeds of Collomia, Acanthodium, Calempehs scaber, Lopho- 
spermum, and Cobeea, pericarp of Salvia. 

Stellate Cells. — Juncus conglomeratus and other rushes, petiole of 
Banana and Plantain, and of Sparganium ramosum, stems of many aquatic 
plants. 

Ciliated Cells. — Spores of Vaucheria and some Fuci. 

Filamentous Cells. — Fungi. 

Follen Cells. — Anthers of Tulip, Lily, Passion-flovi^er, Acacia (cells 
united in fours), Zamia, Cycas, Tropeeolum, Gloxinia, Colocasia, poUi- 
nia of Asclepias and Orchids. 

Follen Tuhes. — (Enothera, Antirrhinum, Hibiscus, Linaria, Gesnera, 
Crocus. 

Embryonic Cells. — Orchis, Listera, Hippuris, Euphrasia, Draba. 

Spores or Reproductive Cells. — In Cryptogamous plants. Ferns, Mosses, 
Lichens, Algse, and Fungi, Zygnema when conjugating. 

Cells with Siliceous Covering. — Diatoms, cuticle of grasses, Equisetum. 

Cells encrusted with Carbonate of Lime, — Chara. 

Epidermal Cells. — Leaves of Hyacinth, petals of Pelargonium, Apple, 
and Digitalis. 

Hairs. — On leaves, and in pappus of Compositse, Cotton (twisted), arti- 
culated hairs on leaves of Goldfussia and Alstroemeria ovata, pappus of 
Trichinium, moniliform hairs on stamens of Tradescantia, stellate hairs of 
Deutzia and Aralia papyrifera, peltate hairs of Malpighia urens, glandular 
hairs of Nettle, Loaza, Chinese Primrose, and Dionaea. 

Glandular Cells. — Sweet-Briar, Passiflora lunata. Ice-plant, Lilac, 
Cinchona, Khamnus, Rottlera, Aloysia, Mentha. 

Scaly Cells. — Ferns, as Polypodium sepultum, and Niphobolus, and 
Ceterach, Hippophae, Begonias, Olive, Elseagnus. 



MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS. Z/ 

Starch in Cells. — Potato, Arrow-root, cereal grains, Bean and Pea. 

Raphides. — Hyacinth, Rhubarb, Arum, Onion, Squill, Balsam, Cactus, 
Lemna. trisulca, Ficus, Aloe, Banana, petal of Ornithogalum. 

Stomata. — Hyacinth, Begonia, Oleander, Lilium, Equisetum, Box, 
Gasteria, Marchantia, Crinum, Yucca, Billbergia. 

Aniheridia and Archegonia. — Prothallus of Ferns, Mosses, Fucus, Mar- 
chantia, spermatozoids in Ferns and Chara. 

Conjugating Cells, — Zygnema nitidum, Tyndaridea, Cylindrocystis, 
Desmidiese. 

Vascular Tissue, — Young stems of Herbaceous plants. 

Spiral Vessels. — Canna bicolor. Pitcher plant (Nepenthes), Banana 
and Plantain, Cactus, Hyacinth, Asparagus, Balsam, Strelitzia, branching 
spirals in Mistleto, Long-leek, and Anagallis. 

Annular Vessels, — Opuntia vulgaris, Leek, Equisetum Telmateia. 

Dotted Vessels. — Sugar-Cane, Nepenthes, Willow, Clematis Vitalba. 

Reticulated Vessels. — Garden Balsam. 

Scalariform Vessels. — Common in Ferns, Osmunda, Asplenium, Cheil- 
anthes, Pteris. 

Laticiferous Vessels. — Ficus elastica, Euphorbia, Tragopogon, Chelido- 
nium, Lactuca, Isonandra Gutta, Dandelion. 

Woody tissue. — Stems of trees, inner bark especially of plants yielding 
useful fibres, as Lace Bark tree, Cuba Bast, root of Llder, Cabbage. 

Punctated Woody Tissue. — Stems of Coniferae, Pinus, Abies, Araucaria, 
fossil stems, Cycas, lUicium, and with spirals in Yew. 

Preservation of Microscope Objects. — The following apparatus 
is required, viz., glass-slides ground at the edges, and of the requisite 
standard size, with circular glass covers. Preserving agents, cement, and 
a moveable circular disk for mounting and making cells. Among the pre- 
serving media for vegetable substances, are — A solution of chloride of cal- 
cium, glycerine, copal varnish, mineral oil, Canada balsam. Among the 
cements used for vegetable objects, are the following : — Brunswick black, 
japanner's gold size, black japan sealing-wax varnish, Robinson's liquid 
glue, gum mastic and caoutchouc dissolved in chloroform. Objects are put 
up {i. e., preserved) either as dry or as wet objects. For dry objects, the 
oils and the Canada balsam are the preservative materials, and they are 
not suited for wet objects. Before mounting objects in Canada balsam 
they should be perfectly clean and free from moisture. They may also be 



28 PREPARATION OF OBJECTS. 

soaked iu turpentine, especially opaque objects, as it renders them more 
transparent. In mounting, the balsam should be heated to expel the air, 
till a fine delicate film is apparent on its surface. The solution of chloride 
of calcium is adapted for the preservation of wood and leaves, and for 
most kinds of isolated tissue. The colouring matter in the cells, however, 
is always more or less altered by it, while grains of starch, if present, swell 
up and can scarcely be recognized. The strength of the solution is one 
part of lime to three of water. Glycerine is used in equal parts mixed with 
camphor water, which prevents the tendency to mildew. The chlorophyll 
and the grains of starch remain unchanged, and the laminae of the starch 
appear more beautiful after a few hours' immersion in the glycerine solution. 
Canada balsam and copal varnish are used for the preservation of dry and 
fossil woods. Thin sections should be made, and the hard woods which 
contain gum, resin, and such like matters, should be soaked in essential oil, 
alcohol, or ether, before mounting. If the entire structure of any exo- 
genous wood is required to be examined, the sections must be made both 
in the transverse or horizontal, and in the longitudinal or vertical direc- 
tions. The vertical section, made parallel to the medullary rays, or, in 
other words, along the course of them, shows the nature of these cellular 
rays, which proceed horizontally from the centre, enclosed between the layers 
of woody fibres, and which are known to the cabinet-maker as the sOver 
grain of the wood. In coniferous trees, as the pine, this section shows also 
the beautiful punctations on the walls of the fibres. The tangential- vertical 
section is a slice across the ends of the medullary rays, and exhibits the 
form and arrangement of the cellular tissue in them. The cells of the 
rays are seen projecting between the fibres of the wood. These vertical 
sections show the form, size, and connections of the woody tubes and the 
spiral, reticulated, and dotted vessels. In endogenous trees horizontal and 
vertical sections are also required. Peat wood requires to be digested 
iu a strong solution of carbonate of soda, and fossil woods which have 
been converted mto carbonate of lime should be digested in hydrochloric 
acid. 

Schleiden gives the following method of preserving minute structures 
for the microscope. Upon a glass slide of the common form, two narrow 
slips of paper are gummed, of a thickness proportioned to the object, and 
at a distance which is regulated by its size. Between these the object is 
laid in a drop of solution of chloride of calcium (one dram to half an ounce 



PRESERVATION OF OBJECTS. 29 

of water). A thin slip of glass, sufficient to cover the object and paper- 
slips, is put on ; the slips are gummed, and the thin glass applied to its 
place, where it is retained by the gum drying. The whole may be secured 
by pasting a long slip of paper over all, with a hole for the object. The 
advantage of this method is preventing running in. Chloride of calcium 
being deliquescent, never dries up, and, if evaporation takes place, water 
is easily introduced at the open sides of the thin glass. The points to be 
attended to are — 1, that the paper between the glasses be thick enough to 
prevent much pressure on the object, and not so thick as to allow it to float 
about or fall out at the side ; 2, that the drop of solution be not too large, 
but covering the object, and yet not reaching the paper. Glycerine may 
be used in place of chloride of calcium in cases where the objects are very 
delicate, or contain chlorophyll or albumen. 

Small specimens for the microscope, such as Diatoms and Desmidieae, 
and many small Sea-weeds, as well as vegetable tissues, are 
put up in slides 3 inches long by 1 broad (fig. 17), in the 
centre of which there is a circular cavity formed by a layer 
of asphalte,* and covered by a circular piece of thin glass. 
The asphalte is applied by means of a hair pencil, the slide 
being placed on a moveable brass disc (fig. 18), which has 
circular marks on it corresponding to the required dimensions 
of the cavity. The depth of tlie cavity can be varied accord- 
ing to circumstances, by putting one or more layers of 
asphalte. After the thin glass cover is put on, it is luted 
carefully with asphalte. The cavity is filled with distilled I'ig- i"- 
water, weak pyroligneous acid, alcohol, diluted glycerine, a very weak 
solution of creazote (one drop to the ounce of distilled water), or some 
other fluid. "When specimens are very minute, the asphalte-cell is not re- 
Fig. 17. Glass slide for microscopic preparations, 3 inches long and 1 inch broad. In the 
centre is a ring of asphalte, forming a cell to contain fluid ; the object marked by a -f in the 
centre, is covered by a circular piece of thin glass fitted to the asphalte rim. Tlie name of 
the object is often written on the glass, but perhaps it is preferable to write the name on 
coloured paper, and attach it to the glass by isinglass or fine bookbinder's glue. 

* Prepared asphalte is much better than gold size or black japan varnish, inasmuch as 
it dries more rapidly, and is less liable to run. It can be procured from Smith and Beck, 
6 Coleman Street, London ; and from Bryson, 24 Princes Street ; Kemp, Infirmary Street ; 
and Hart, North College Street, Edinburgh. 




30 



PREPARATION OF CELLS. 



quired ; the thin glass is applied at once to the slide, a drop or two of the 
fluid being inserted along with the specimen. In the case of some dry 
preparations, as pollen-grains, and the fine-lined Diatoms, no fluid what- 
ever is required, but precautions must be taken against the access of damp. 
Canada balsam is useful in some instances. The 
specimen is put on a slide, then a minute portion 
of the balsam is put above it, and the thin 
glass above all ; the slide is heated gently below 
by means of a spirit lamp until the balsam be- 
comes quite fluid, and until all the air has been 
expelled by the weight of the glass cover. It 
is then set aside to dry, and ultimately a rim 
of asphalte is put round the margin of the glass 
cover. Canada balsam is well fitted for many 
Diatoms, and for thin sections of woods. In 
putting up woods, the specimen is placed in the 
centre of the glass, a drop of turpentine is put 
Fig. 18. on it to expel the air, Canada balsam is then 

applied before the turpentine dries, and the same procedure is followed as 
above. 

On preparing fossils for microscopic examination, Mr. Alexander 
Bryson remarks :* — 

The usual mode of proceeding in making a section of fossil wood 
is simple, though tedious. The first process is to flatten the specimen 
to be operated on by grinding it on a flat lap made of lead charged 
with emery or corundum powder. It must now be rendered perfectly 
flat by hand on a plate of metal or glass, using much finer emery than 
in the first operation of grinding. The next operation is to cement the 




Fig. 18. Apparatus for aiding in making the circular rim of asphalte ; 5, a piece of 
mahogany ; a, a circular piece of brass, which can be moved round by the hand, and has 
two brass springs on its surface for holding a glass slide firm. In the centre of the brass 
disc are circular markings fitted for the size of asphalte cells required. These marks being 
seen through the slide laid above them, guide the hand in making the circular asphalte rim, 
the brass disc being turned round during the application. 



* On an improved method of preparing siliceous and other fossils for microscopic investi- 
gation, with a description of a new pneumatic chuck. By Alex. Bryson, in Edin. N. Phil. 
Journal, N. S., iii., 297. 



FOSSIL SECTIONS. 31 

object to the glass plate. Both the plate of glass and the fossil to be 
cemented must be heated to a temperature rather inconvenient for the 
fingers to bear. By this means moisture and adherent air are driven off, 
especially from the object to be operated on. Canada balsam is now to be 
equally spread over both plate and object, and exposed again to heat, until 
the redundant turpentine in the balsam has been driven off by evaporati( n. 
The two surfaces are now to be connected while hot, and a slow circular 
motion, with pressure, given either to the plate or object, for the purpose 
of throwing out the superabundant balsam and globules of included air. 
The object should be below and the glass plate above, as we then can see 
when all the air is removed^ by the pressure and motion indicated. It 
is proper to mention that too much balsam is more favourable for the 
expulsion of the air-bubbles than too little. When cold, the Canada balsam 
will be found hard and adhering, and the specimen fit for slitting. This 
process has hitherto been performed by using a disc of thin sheet-iron, so 
much employed by the tinsmith, technically called sheet-tin. The tin 
coating ought to be partially removed by heating the plate, and when hot 
rubbing off much of the extraneous tin by a piece of cloth. The plate has 
now to be planished on the polished stahe of the tinsmith, until quite flat. 
If the plate is to be used in the lathe, and by the usual method, it ought to 
be planished so as to possess a slight convexity. This gives a certain 
amount of rigidity to the edge, which is useful in slitting by the hand ; 
while by the method of mechanical slitting, about to be described, this con- 
vexity is inadmissible. The tin plate, when mounted on an appropriate 
chuck in the lathe, must be turned quite true, with its edge slightly rounded 
and made perfectly smooth by a fine-cut file. The edge of the disc is now 
to be charged with diamond powder. This is done by mingling the diamond 
powder with oil, and placing it on a piece of the hardest agate, and then 
turning the disc slowly round ; and holding the agate with the diamond 
powder with a moderate pressure against the edge of the disc, it becomes 
thoroughly charged with a host of diamond points, becoming, as it were, a 
saw with invisible teeth. In pounding the diamond, some care is necessary, 
as also a fitting mortar. The mortar should be made of an old steel die, if 
accessible ; if not, a mass of steel, slightly conical, the base of which ought 
to be 2 inches in diameter, and the upper part 1^ inch. A cylindrical hole 
is now to be turned out in the centre, of fths of an inch diameter, and about 
1 inch deep. This, when hardened, is the mortar ; for safety it may be 



32 



PREPARATION OF FOSSIL SECTIONS 



annealed to a straw colour. The pestle is merely a cylinder of steel, fitting 
the hollow mortar but loosely, and having a ledge or edging of an eighth of 
an inch projecting round it, but sufficiently raised above the upper surface 
of the mortar, so as not to come in contact while pounding the diamond. 
The point of the pestle ought only to be hardened and annealed to a straw 
colour, and should be of course convex, fitting the opposing and equal con- 
cavity of the mortar. The purpose of the projecting ledge is to prevent 
the smaller particles of diamond spurting out when the pestle is struck by 
the hammer. 

Mr. Bryson has contrived an instrument for slitting fossils. The 
instrument is placed on the table of a common lathe, which is, of course, 
the source of motion. (Fig. 19.) It consists of a Watt's parallel motion. 




Fig. 19. 

with four joints, attached to a basement fixed to the table of the lathe. 
This base has a motion (for adjustment only) in a horizontal plane, by 
which we may be enabled to place the upper joint in a parallel plane with 
the spindle of the lathe. This may be called the azimuthal adjustment. 
The adjustment, which in an astronomical instrument is called the plane 

Fig. 19. Mr. Bryson's instrument for slitting fossils. 



FOR THE MICROSCOPE. 33 

of right ascension 5 is given by a pivot in the top of the base, and clamped 
by a screw below. This motion in right ascension gives us the power of 
adjusting the perpendicular planes of motion, so that the object to be slit 
passes down from the circumference of the slitting-plate to nearly its centre, 
in a perfectly parallel plane. When this adjustment is made accurately, 
and the slitting-plate well primed and flat, a very thin and parallel slice is 
obtained. This jointed frame is counterpoised and supported by a lever, 
the centre of which is moveable in a pillar standing perpendicularly from 
the lathe table. Attached to the lever is a screw of three threads, by 
which the counterpoise weight is adjusted readily to the varying weight of 
the object to be slit and the necessary pressure required on the edge of the 
slitting-plate. 

The object is fixed to the machine by a pneumatic chuck. It consists 
of an iron tube, which passes through an aperture on the upper joint of the 
guiding-frame, into which is screwed a round piece of gun-metal, slightly 
hollowed in the centre, but flat towards the edge. This gun-metal disc is 
perforated by a small hole communicating with the interior of the iron 
tube. This aperture permits the air between the glass plate and the chuck 
to be exhausted by a small air syringe at the other end. The face of this 
chuck is covered with a thin film of soft India-rubber not vulcanized, also 
perforated with a small central aperture. When the chuck is properly 
adjusted, and the India-rubber carefully stretched over the face of the 
gun-metal, one or two pulls of the syringe-piston is quite sufficient to main- 
tain a very large object to the action of the slitting-plate. By this method 
no time is lost; the adhesion is made instantaneously, and as quickly 
broken by opening a small screw, to admit air between the glass-plate ^and 
the chuck, when the object is immediately released. Care must be taken, 
in stretching the India-rubber over the face of the chuck, to make it very 
equal in its distribution, and as thin as consistent with strength. When 
this material is obtained from the shops, it presents a series of slight 
grooves, and is rather hard for our purpose. It ought, therefore, to be 
slightly heated, which renders it soft and pliant, and in this state should 
now be stretched over the chuck, and a piece of soft copper wire tied 
round it, a slight groove being cut in the periphery of the chuck, to detain 
the wire in its place. When by use the surface of the India-rubber becomes 
flat, smooth, and free from the grooves which at first mar its usefulness, a 
specimen may be slit of many square inches, without resort being had to 



34 PREPARATION OF FOSSIL SECTIOXS 

another exhaustion by the syringe. But when a large, hard, siliceous 
object has to be slit, it is well for the sake of safety to try the syringe 
piston, and observe if it returns forcibly to the bottom of the cylinder, 
which evidences the good condition of the vacuum of the chuck. 

After the operation of slitting, the plate must be removed from the 
spindle of the lathe, and the flat lead lap substituted. The pneumatic 
chuck is now to be reversed, and the specimen placed in contact with the 
grinder. By giving a slightly tortuous motion to the specimen, that is, 
using the motion of the various joints, the object is ground perfectly flat 
when the length of both arms of the joints are perfectly equal. Should 
the leg of the first joint on the right hand side be the longer, the specimen 
will be ground hollow ; if shorter, it will be ground convex. But if, as 
before stated, they are of equal length, a perfectly parallel surface will be 
obtained. 

In operating on siliceous objects, I have found soap and water quite as 
speedy and efficacious as oil, which is generally used ; while calcareous 
fossils must be slit by a solution of common soda in water. This solution 
of soda, if made too strong, softens the India-rubber on the face of the 
pneumatic chuck, and renders a new piece necessary ; but if care is taken 
to keep the solution of moderate strength, one piece of India-rubber may 
last for six months. The thinner and flatter it becomes, the better hold the 
glass takes, until a puncture occurs in the outer portion, and a new piece 
is rendered necessary. 

The polishing of the section is the last operation. This is performed 
in various ways, according to the material of which the organism is com- 
posed. If siliceous, a lap of tin is to be used, about the same size as the 
grinding lap. Having turned the face smooth and flat, a series of very 
fine notches are to be made all over the surface. This operation is accom- 
phshed by holding the edge of an old dinner-knife almost perpendicular to 
the surface of the lap while rotating ; this produces a series of criddles, or 
slight asperities, which detain the polishing substance. The polishing 
substance used on the tin lap is technically called lapidaries' rot-stone, and 
is applied by shghtly moistening the mass, and pressing it firmly against 
the pohsher, care being taken to scrape ofi" the outer surface, which often 
contains grit. The specimen is then to be pressed with some degree of 
force against the revolving tin lap or polisher, carefully changing the plane 
of action, by moving the specimen in various directions over the surface. 



FOR THE MICROSCOPE. 35 

To polish calcareous objects, another method must be adopted as 
follows : — 

A lap or disc of willow wood is to be adapted to the spindle of the 
lathe, three inches in thickness, and about the diameter of the other laps 
(10 inches), the axis of the wood being parallel to the spindle of the lathe, 
that is, the acting surface of the wood is the end of the fibres, or transverse 
section. 

This polisher must be turned quite flat and smoothed by a plane, as the 
willow, from its softness, is peculiarly difficult to turn. It is also of conse- 
quence to remark, that both sides be turned so as that the lap, when dry, 
is quite parallel. This lap is most conveniently adapted to the common 
face chuck of a lathe with a conical screw, so that either surface may be 
used. This is made evident, when we state that this polisher is always 
used moist, and, to keep both surfaces parallel, must be entirely plunged 
in water before using, as both surfaces must be equally moist, otherwise 
the dry will be concave, and the moist surface convex. The polishing 
substance used with this lap is putty powder (oxide of tin), which ought 
to be well washed, to free it from grit. The calcareous fossils being finely 
ground, are speedily polished by this method. To polish softer substances, 
a piece of cloth may be spread over the wooden Zap, and finely-levigated 
chalk used as a polishing medium. 

In all instances slides should be labelled with the name, locality, and 
date, and they should be numbered and catalogued so that they may be 
easily referred to when put up in cases such as that shown in ^g. 20, or 
in cabinets.* 

The Diatomacese being either free, or attached to Algse, etc., diffe- 
rent modes must be resorted to for collecting them. Those which are 
attached require only (either at the time or after being dried) to be rinsed 
gently in fresh water to get rid of the sand or mud, and salt if any, and 
then placed in a small saucer in boiling water, with a few drops of nitric or 
muriatic acid. The cuticle being corroded, the Diatoms fall to the bottom, 
the floating Algse are taken out with a glass rod, and the residue washed. 
This step is merely preparatory to that of burning or boiling the objects. 
If the Diatoms be free, they should, as far as possible, be gathered free 

* In making sections of minute objects, such as Diatoms, they are mixed up with plaster 
of Paris and mucilage, and then the whole is sliced by means of a sharp razor. Small pieces 
of wood are sometimes put into a slit in a cork, and then the whole sliced. 



36 



CASES FOR PREPARATIONS. 



from sand or mud, by skimming the surface of the pond or pool with an 
iron spoon ; but as much mud and sand may still be mixed with them, they 
ought to be afterwards placed in a saucer in a little water, and exposed to 




Fig. 20. 

the sun for a day or two. A tumbler or hand-glass will prevent too much 
evaporation. Diatoms, if recently gathered and alive, will come to the 
surface of the sediment, or water, or both, and this affords an easy mode of 
separating certain species. They may now be skimmed off with a small 
spoon, or, what is preferable, a camel's hair pencil, and removed to clean 
water ; and this process is to be repeated till the mud is got rid of entirely. 
As for preparing the specimens, they may be either burned, or boiled in 



Fig. 20. A case for containing slides after being prepared. There are three divisions, 
each containing twelve slides, two of which are shown projecting above the lower division 
of the box, the lid being hollowed to receive them. Numbers corresponding to those on the 
slides are fastened on the partitions at the sides of the grooves which retain the slides. On 
the front of the box a notice of the numbers contained in it should be fastened. Corre- 
sponding numbers, with full particulars as to the preparations, ought to be inserted in a 
book which serves as a catalogue, in which there should be first a numeral progressive 
series, and then an alphabetical register for genera. Card boxes for holding 24 slides are 
made by Smith and Beck and others, price one shilling each. They are excellent for form- 
ing a general collection. Cabinets are also made for slides, consisting of drawers half-an- 
inch deep (including the bottom) divided so as to hold 30, 40, or 50 slides, all on their back ; 
the drawers being slightly bevelled at their divisions on one side, so that the slides may be 
tilted up by pressing them down. Smith and Beck charge for a cabinet of Honduras 
mahogany, capable of holding 500 slides, four guineas ; 750 slides, five pounds ; 1000 slides, 
six guineas ; and 2000 slides, eleven pounds. 



PREPARATION OF DIATOMS. 37 

nitric acid. For the isolated Diatoms,* as Navicula, Pleurosigma, Coc- 
coneis, etc., boiling is preferable ; but for the others, as Synedra, Fragilaria, 
Melosira, Meridion, etc., if one wishes to have a few frustules cohering 
together to show their habit, then burning must be adopted, as the acid 
separates them joint by joint, and valve from valve. This is accomphshed 
by arranging the specimens in the centre of a glass slide, and laying them 
on a thin iron -slide, and placing the whole within a little iron tray, closed 
in the form of a slipper, to exclude ashes. This is exposed to the fire till 
the slide is red hot. The slide is now allowed to cool, and the specimen is 
ready for being covered either with or without the intervention of balsam. 
The latter is called dry mounting, and is best accomplished by making a 
ring of asphalte, and following the same process as for liquid mounting, but 
without liquid. When nitric acid is to be used, the cleaned Diatoms are 
put into a large- sized test tube of German glass, with as little water as pos- 
sible, and about one part of nitric acid to four of water. After being boiled 
for two or three minutes over a spirit-lamp, the Diatoms must be allowed 
to subside, and as much liquor as possible poured off with any fragments 
of vegetable matter floating in it. This boiling sometimes suffices, but it 
is always preferable to add some of the strong acid, and boil the whole 
again for a few minutes, so as to dissolve any vegetable or animal sub- 
stances remaining. As the siliceous covering is very thin, and easily 
broken by a sudden change of temperature, care must be taken in washing 
away the acid, either to use boiling water, or to allow the Diatoms in the 
test-tube to cool. When a sufficient supply of pure distilled water can be 
easily got, it alone ought to be used for washing them ; but, when that is 
not the case, ordinary water may be employed for the first washing, but 
the after washings must be all made with distilled water until the acid is 
got rid of. After being thoroughly washed, the Diatoms are kept in a 
small test-tube with some distilled water. In taking the specimens from 
the test-tube, in order to put them on the slide, a pipette or dropping-tube 
is employed, having a bore of about ^th to -^th of an inch at its 
•ower end. 

Mr. Jackson remarks that it is desirable that no object submitted to 
higher power than a quarter-inch objective of 75^ aperture should ever 

* By free Diatoms are meant those that are not parasitical. By isolated or solitary 
Diatoms are meant those not connected nor cohering together into threads or plates, or by 
a stipe, tube, or gelatine. 



38 PREPARATION OF DIATOMS. 

be mounted under a cover thicker than rioth of an inch ; if the aperture 
exceeds 120°, the best thickness for the cover is afc^b of an inch.* 
Glass of this thickness can easily be cut with a good writing diamond, 
when laid on a piece of plate glass.f To clean the covers, he recommends 
putting them in strong sulphuric acid for a day or two, and then washing 
them repeatedly with water ; after that placing them, a few at a time, on 
a tightly stretched clean cambric handkerchief, and rubbing them very 
gently with another handkerchief on the finger. They should then be 
removed to a clean box, with forceps, and carefully kept from dust and 
from contact with the fingers. The covers should be sorted according to 
their thickness, and this is done at once by Boss's "lever of contact," 
which consists of a long slender index, having a projecting touch near the 
centre of motion, which is kept in contact with a plane surface by means 
of a spring. When a piece of glass is inserted under the touch, the index 
points to the thickness on a graduated arc. The thickness may also be 
measured in the usual way by placing a fragment in the pliers, with the 
edge upwards, under the microscope, armed with an inch object-glass and 
an eye-piece micrometer.^ 

To MAKE Cells, and to fix the thin Glass Covers. — The cells 
are made either round or square by thin layers of cement, according to the 
depth required. Perhaps the round ones are neater, but they require 
circular pieces of glass for covers, and by the aid of the moveable circular 
disc, the roundness of the mounting can be made with perfect accuracy. 
The cover is laid gently down, so as to float on the solution in which the 
object lies, and by pressing carefully on the cover, the superabundant fluid 
is made to pass out by the edges, and may be taken up by a sponge or 
blotting paper. A thin layer of Brunswick black, or liquid glue, or gold 
size, may be placed round the edge, which will gradually harden and com- 
pletely seal up the preparation. 

* I am informed by a friend, that on acconnt of the brittleness of the glass, covers 
thinner than l-140th or l-150th of an inch are, in the hands of most manipulators, practically 
useless, as they break by the mere wiping or mounting, and that glass l-150th of an inch is 
not too thick either for Smith and Beck's l-5th object-glass with 100^ of aperture, or Ross's 
l-8th with 1560 of aperture ; but that when dry mounting is adopted, the object ought to be 
arranged on the under side of the cover, thus bringing it as near the lenses as possible. 

t Quekett on the Microscope. 2d Edit. p. 265. 

X Quarterly Journal of Microsc. Science, i. 141. 



DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE MICROSCOPE. 39 

Directions hy Smith and Bechfor using the Compound Microscope, 

Before using the microscope, see that the mirror, object-glass, and eye- 
piece are free from dust : — a httle soft wash leather should be used in 
cleaning these. The instrument should be placed on a steady table to 
avoid vibration. The best position for examination by day-light is with 
the window to the left hand, and the back partly turned toward the 
window, so that the light may fall directly upon the mirror, and not upon 
the observer's face. At night, when a lamp is used, a shade should be 
placed if possible before the lamp, so as to screen the eyes from its glare. 
The nearer the observer can . approach the window by day, and the 
closer the lamp can be brought towards the mirror at night (say from 
fifteen to twenty inches) the better ; as all the hght that can be obtained is 
required for high magnifying powers ; and if too intense for some objects, 
can be easily modified by the mirror. When the microscope has a joint 
to the stand, it should generally be used with the body in an inclined 
position — at an angle of about 45°, this being much more convenient for 
the observer, and not so liable to injure the eye by overstraining it. 
The management of light, either natural or artificial, is of the greatest 
importance in microscopic observations. This may he regulated hy altering 
the position of the mirror under the stage ; the proper adjustment of which 
will soon be acquired by a little practice and observation. In adjusting 
the microscope for use, first place it in its proper position, and screw or 
slide on a low-powered object-glass, then look through the tube, and 
incline the mirror towards the light, moving it ahout until a clear hright 
light is seen. The object may then be placed upon the stage and the 
focus adjusted by the rack movement. In examinmg any fresh object, 
the lowest magnifying power should be first used, as a larger portion of it 
can be thus viewed at once, and a better general idea of its form, colour, 
etc., obtained. Afterward the higher powers may be employed, in order 
to reveal its minute structure. 

In viewing very delicate transparent objects, as fossil infusoria, thin 
vegetable and animal tissues, blood and milk globules, etc., a good clear 
light should be used, but the mirror should be inclined on one side more 
than usual, that the ohject may appear less hrightly illuminated. This is 
what is termed " obhque illumination," — the rays of light being reflected 
from the mirror, through the object, in an ohliqiie direction, by which many 



40 



WORKS ON THE MICROSCOPE. 



delicate markings may be observed on some objects wliich could not be 
distinguished before, and the outline also rendered more distmct. 

In examining opaque objects, a low magnifying power should be used, 
and the light thrown upon the object by means of the " Condenser," 
which should be placed within two inches of it, and so arranged that a 
small circle of bright light may be seen upon the spot to be examined. 
When viewing objects in a drop of water, or examining a drop of any other 
liquid, a slip of thin glass should always be laid over it ; otherwise the 
liquid will evaporate, and condensing on the object-glass, will render it dim. 

Works on the Microscope.— The following works may be consulted 
by the student : — Quekett's Practical Treatise on the Use of the Microscope ; 
Carpenter, The Microscope and its Kevelations ; Schacht, The Microscope 
and its Apphcation to Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology, translated by 
Currey ; Hannover on the Construction and Use of the Microscope, edited 
by Professor Goodsir ; Beale, The Microscope and its Application to 
Chnical Medicme ; Hogg on the Microscope ; Boss, article '' Microscope " 
in the Penny Cyclopaedia; Bennett's Lectures on Clinical Medicine, etc. ; 
Transactions of Microscopical Society and Microscopical Journal ; Griffith 
and Henfrey, Micrographical Dictionary ; Pritchard's Microscopic Illustra- 
tions ; Robin, Du Microscope et des Injections. 

Ross' Microscopes in 1855— Objectives and Prices. 



Object Glasses, 
Pocal Length. 


Angle of 
Aperture. 


Magnifying Powers 
four Eye-pieces 


with 


Prices. 


2 inches 


12 degs. 


A 

20 


B 

30 


C 

40 


D 

60 


£ s. 

2 


1 inch 


15 „ 


60 


80 


100 


120 


3 


1 » 


22 „ 


60 


80 


100 


120 


3 10 


i „ 


65 „ 


100 


130 


180 


220 


5 5 


I » 


85 „ 


220 


350 


500 


620 


5 6 


1 

4 J» 


125 „ 


220 


350 


500 


620 


7 10 


i .. 


135 „ 


320 


510 


700 


910 


10 


i ,. 


130 „ 


400 


670 


900 


1200 


11 


i .. 


150 „ 


400 


670 


900 


1200 


12 


iV » 


170 „ 


650 


900 


1250 


2000 


18 



i 



COLLECTING AND DRYING OF PLANTS. 41 

List OF the Principal Microscope Makers.— Ross, Powell and Lea- 
land, Smith and Beck, Ladd, Pillischer, Pritchard, Salmon, in London ; -A die, 
Bryson, Hart, in Edinburgh ; Field, Parkes, in Birmingham ; Dancer, in 
Manchester; King, in Bristol; Chevalier, Nachet, Oberhauser, Brmmer, 
in Paris ; Schiek, Pistor, in Berlin ; Ploesl, in Vienna ; Frauenhofer, in 
Munich ; Amici in Modena. 

11.— On Collecting and Examining Plants, and on the Formation 
OF a Herbarium. 

Instruments and Apparatus. — In examining the characters of 
plants with a view to classification, the chief instruments required are a 
lancet-pointed knife, a small pair of forceps and a lens, from ^ to 1 inch 
focus. With the view of holding the object steadily, the blades of the 
forceps may be made so as to be fastened by a sliding button. In more 
minute examinations, the simple or compound microscope must be called 
into requisition. In selecting specimens, care should be taken to have the 
plants in a perfect state, or with all the characteristic parts present. The 
entire plant should be taken when practicable ; when that is not the case, 
then those parts should be taken on which the generic and specific charac- 
ters are founded. The roots should always be carefully washed at the 
time the plants are gathered. In most cases, particularly in specimens of 
Umbelliferse, Leguminosse, Composites, Rosae, &c., it is of importance that 
both flowers and fruit should be preserved. In the case of Willows, the 
young shoot, with its fully developed leaves, as well as the male and female 
flowers, are requisite. In Rubi, specimens of the young shoots must be 
taken. When bulbs or tubers exist, they should be preserved, either in 
an entire or split condition ; and when there is much mucilaginous matter 
in them, they may be enveloped in small pieces of paper, so as to prevent 
them from adhering to the drying paper. In the case of Ferns, two fronds 
are necessary to make a perfect specimen, showing both surfaces, along 
with a portion of the rhizome. Entire specimens of Graminese and 
Cyperacese should be collected ; these, when long, may be bent into one 
or more folds, corresponding to the size of the paper on which they 
are to be fastened, the folds being temporarily retained by small slips 
of paper having slits in the centre. No bad specimens ought to be pre- 
served. 

c2 



42 



COLLECTING AND DRYING OF PLANTS. 



In taking up the roots of plants, a small Digger or trowel is used, 7 or 8 
inches long (fig. 21) ; the spud 2^ inches long, 2^ inches wide at the top, 
narrowing gradually to 2 inches at the bottom, the lower angles slightly- 
rounded. It should be sufficiently strong to resist considerable force in 
digging out plants from the crevices of rocks. The iron portion, which 
unites the spud to the handle, should be particularly attended to in 
this respect. This' spade is put into a leather sheath, and fastened by 
a strap round the waist, the spade itself being attached to the strap by a 
long string. A japanned tin box or Vasmlum is required for the reception 
of specimens. This should be of sufficient length to receive a plant of the 
full size of the herbarium paper ; it ought to be convex on both sides 





Fig. 21. Fig. 23. 

(fig. 22) ; and its capacity may vary according to the wish of the col- 
lector. In long excursions where productive localities are visited, it will 
be found that a vasculum 20 inches long, by 8 or 9 inches wide, and 5 
deep, is not too large ; and when it is made of thin tin, it is by no means 
heavy. At one end a good sized thickish handle should be placed, and it 
is necessary to have wires fixed at each end {a) so as to receive a strap for 
fastening the vasculum on the shoulders. The lid of the vasculum should 
be large, and is best secured by a wire which slips into a tin sheath, and 
so constructed as not to be liable to slip out when the box is held by the 
handle. The specimens should be put into the box in a uniform manner 
— the flower at one end, and the roots at the other ; and care should 
be taken to have the former (which should be the end where the handle is) 
always kept (m the higher position when carried on the shoulders. For 

Fig. 21. Form of spade or digger. 

Fig. 22. Form of Vasculum or botanical box. 

Fig. 23. Form of Field-book for drying specimens of plants. 



COLLECTING AND DRYING OF PLANTS. 



43 



mosses and some Alpine species of plants, a small box may also be carried 
in the pocket. In collecting minute aquatic plants, as Desmidese and 
Diatomacese, it is necessary to have small glass bottles, or test-tubes fitted 
to a small case. The corks should be numbered to facilitate notes being 
taken at the time, of the localities in which the specimens were collected. 
Many plants will not bear transport ; their flowers fall ojff easily, and they 
are so delicate that their foliage becomes shrivelled; This is the case 
with the flower of Trientalis europeea, Rubus 
Chamsemorus, and Veronica saxatilis, and with 
some dehcate Ferns. In such instances it is 
best to put them at once into paper. This is 
managed by having a small Field-book (fig. 
23), which maybe put into the pocket or sus- 
pended round the neck, secured by straps so 
as to give pressure, and with an oil -cloth 
covering which may be used in wet weather. 
This field-book may be made with two thin 
mahogany boards on the outside. 

A convenient field-book used by students 
in Edinburgh is represented by fig. 24. It 
is made of twofmahogany boards about nine 
inches long by five broad, containing from 12 
to 24 parcels of paper, each parcel consisting of four sheets, the back of the 
parcels being covered with strips of leather or cloth. The boards may be 
rendered firm by being made each of two thin layers of crossed wood 
fastened together in the way afterwards noticed when speaking of large 
boards. Two narrow leather straps pass through two holes in one 
margin of each of the boards, and also through slits in the leather-covered 
backs of the parcels of the paper, a, so as to prevent them from falling out 
when the field-book is opened. In the case of one of the boards, the 
two straps also pass through perforations in its other margin, &, and 
under these another sti'ap is passed for the purpose of suspending the 
field-book round the neck. The two small straps pass through grooves 
in the margin of the other board, c, and are thus buckled so as to apply 
pressure. 

Fig, 24, Small field-book with thin mahogany boards outside, which are brought together 
by leather straps. 




Fig, 24. 



44 DRYING PAPER AND BOARDS. 

The Paper for drying should be moderately absorbent, 18 inches 
long by 11 broad, and arranged in parcels containing not less than four 
sheets. The paper which is used extensively in Scotland, is made by Cowan 
and Co., Princes Street, Edinburgh. In many respects, the Edinburgh 
botanists prefer it to Bentall's. It is of considerable thickness, absorbs 
moisture rapidly, but does not become too moist, and dries easily. A very 
thin kind of paper, called crown tea-paper, is used for holding very dehcate 
plants, which cannot be easily transferred from one paper to another during 
drying. After being carefully laid out in the folds of this paper, they 
are placed between the sheets of drying paper, and when the paper is 
changed they are transferred at once in their thin cover without being 
disturbed. This plan is useful in the case of such plants as Myrio- 
phyllum, Callitriche autumnahs, and other aquatics, as well as Viola 
lutea, whose petals collapse if removed in the ordinary way, after a day's 
pressure. 

In order that pressure may be given, Boards are requisite. These 
should be exactly the size of the drying paper. Some of them are used 
for outside boards, and these ought to be from ^ to | of an inch thick. 
Others are inside boards, about f of an inch thick. The outside boards 
are often made double — each double board being composed of two thin 
ones, the grain of the one crossing that of the other (as in the case of the 
field-boards already mentioned), closely glued together, and firmly secured 
by small screws along the edge, at intervals of three inches. They may 
be rounded on their outer margins. For every two reams of drying 
paper, not less than ten boards should be procured; two of which are 
for the outside, and eight for the inside. Sheets of stout pasteboard 
are also useful for packing up the plants as they become dry. The pres- 
sure is best applied on a botanical excursion, by means of a rope put 
crosswise round the boards and paper, and tightened by a rack-pin. This 
is much better than straps, which are apt to give way, and are with 
difficulty replaced during an excursion. In other circumstances, pressure 
is best applied by means of heavy weights. The pressure ought not to be 
less than 100 lbs. This is preferable to a screw-press, in which the 
pressure is not kept up while the plants are losing their moisture. 
In order to allow free ventilation, and thus to dry plants more rapidly, Mr. 
Twining recommends, instead of boards, frames made of crossed bars with 
spaces between them; the surface applied to the paper being flat, — the 



BOTANICAL PRESS. 



45 



others being ribbed by means of prominent cross bars, so as to leave a 
ventilating space between the one frame and the other (figs. 25 and 26). 
By an apparatus consisting of eight of such inner frames, and two outer 
frames of a stouter nature, so as to bear pressure, the plants as well as the 
paper may be dried rapidly. The apparatus, with paper and plants firmly 




strapped, is suspended in a draft of air coming through a partially closed 
window, or on the branch of a tree in sunshine ; and it is said that desicca- 
tion of the plants and paper is accomphshed in four days. By the use of 
artificial heat in an open and airy place, as, for instance, by being placed 
before the fire, the drying may be accomphshed in twenty-four or forty- 
eight hours. Mr. Twining, when in Switzerland, first pressed the plants 
tightly for twenty-four hours, and then piled them properly in the frame- 
work apparatus, which was hung up in the hot air of a drying room, and in 
twenty-four hours more they were ready for packing, the paper also which 
contained them bemg perfectly dry and bibulous.* Henslow recommends 
that, with the view of ventilating plants during drying, holes should be 
made in the ordinary boards at regular intervals, and that two of the inner 
boards should always be placed together, separated by flat cross bars which 
may either be fastened to the boards by liquid glue prepared from shell lac, 
or may be kept loose, and inserted when required. A complicated 
apparatus is suggested by M. Gannal, the particulars of which are given in 
the Botanical Gazette, ii. 55 ; and there also another mode of drying is 
described, in which plants, after having been kept in a press for a few hours, 
are exposed to the sun, or placed on a stove or in an oven, in an apparatus 
called the Coquette. This consists of two open covers made of strong 

Fig. 25. Frames formed of cross bars, for pressure and ventilation. 

Fig. 26. Side view of frames. One of the frames a seen laterally, with its cross bars form- 
ing projections ; two of these frames 6 and c appear together, so as to allow ventilation be- 
tween them. 

* See a description and drawing of this apparatus, in Botanical Gazette, ii. 59. 



46 MODE OF DRYING PLANTS. 

iron-wire network fastened into frames made of light iron rod, pressure 
being applied by straps or ropes, as already mentioned. The open frames 
allow the moisture to escape freely. Sheets of tin may be employed to 
separate the different layers of plants in process of drying, so as to hinder 
the humidity of one from reaching the other, or the inequalities of the 
larger from injuring the smaller and more delicate. In the case of plants 
with strong stems, they must either be spht, or a sand-bag, of the same size 
as the boards, used, so as to equalize the pressure. 

Process of Drying. — The plants when collected are to be placed 
on the drying paper. In doing this, a parcel of not less than four sheets 
is put on one of the outside boards ; then the specimens are laid out 
carefully, preserving as far as possible their natural habits, and laying 
out the leaves and other parts. Another parcel of drying paper is then 
placed above th^se, and the same process is repeated with other specimens 
until twelve such parcels have been placed together. Then one of the 
inner boards is laid down, and other layers of paper and specimens are 
applied, until the whole parcel is of suflQcient size to be subjected to 
pressure. After twelve hours' pressure, in most instances, the paper is 
changed, the moist paper being hung up to dry ; and in transferring the 
specimens from the wet to the dry paper, a large pair of surgeon's forceps 
is used. The interval elapsing between the changing of the paper may be 
increased or diminished according to the nature of the plants, and the state 
of the weather. In the course of eight or ten days, ordinary specimens 
will be so dry as to require only very slight pressure, with a moderate cir- 
culation of air. Some very dry plants, as grasses, may require only one 
changing. Succulent plants, such as Sedum and Sempervivum, continue 
to grow, however much submitted to pressure and the ordinary methods of 
desiccation already indicated. In order to dry these plants completely and 
rapidly, it is necessary to kill them, by immersion in boiling water for five 
or ten minutes. The plants thus dealt with are then placed upon a cloth 
and left to drain for some time, after which they must be carefully placed 
between the folds of the drying paper, not forgetting to lay out properly 
any of the parts which the water may have disarranged. Orchideous plants 
are sometimes put into warm paper, and changed frequently, with the view, 
if possible, of preserving their colours by the rapidity of drying. Scarifi- 
cation has sometimes been adopted with the view of allowing the juice to 
flow out rapidly. Motley recommends that Orchids should be put into weak 



MODE OF DRYING PLANTS. 47 

spirit for one or two nights, and then dried. In the case of some thick- 
headed plants, as Thistles, the capitula must either be cut, or they must 
be crushed between paper by temporary pressure from the foot ; this treat- 
ment must also be applied to such plants as Eryngium maritimum and the 
Holly. Sometimes the flower or parts of the flower may be separated 
advantageously during drying by the insertion of small pieces of blotting 
paper. At the time the specimens are laid out on the drying paper, a 
label should be inserted with the date of collecting, the name of the station, 
its elevation above the sea (if it can be ascertained), and any remarks as 
to soil or geological structure that may be known. In the course of long 
excursions, it is necessary to devote every now and then some time to the 
proper arranging and tallying of the specimens. On this subject, GreviUe 
says, " half a day, therefore, at least, in the middle of the week, say the 
morning of every Wednesday till two o'clock, should be appropriated to 
the preservation and arrangement of your plants ; and a part or the whole 
of every Saturday should invariably be set apart for the same purpose, in 
order that they may not be injured by remaining untouched on the Lord's 
Day." With the view of transporting dried plants securely in wet weather^ 
it is useful to have a supply of oil cloth to cover them. 

Mosses may be collected in excursions in tufts, and dried by moderate 
pressure at first. They can afterwards be separated, moistened, and dried 
with greater pressure. They ought to be gathered in fructification. In 
preserving minute Mosses, Dr. C. Miiller takes clear talc, splits it into thin 
layers, and cuts it into oblong pieces of proper size. Then, with a pen- 
knife, he splits one of these pieces (from one of the narrow sides) half-way 
through^ so that it may be opened to admit the object and then close by its 
elasticity, the unsplit end serving as a holder. A drop of water is intro- 
duced into the slit with the object. When laid aside it dries, and may be 
rendered fit for microscopic examination by dipping in water. Lichens 
sometimes require to be taken with the rocks or stones to which they 
are attached, and they may be merely wrapped up in paper. Sea-weeds 
must be washed with fresh water before being laid out. The more 
delicate kinds are floated out on pieces of stiff paper, and afterwards 
dried by moderate pressure. In preserving fungi, such as Agarics, etc., a 
thin slice is taken from the centre, extending from the top of the pileus to 
the base of the stipe. This is dried separately to show the gills or pores, 
etc. The inner cellular portion of the pileus and stipe is then removed 



48 SPECIMENS FOR HERBABIUM. 

and these parts are dried so as to give the form. Travellers visiting 
foreign countries (although not botanists) will find it an easy matter to 
preserve Mosses, Lichens, and Sea- weeds in a state fit for after- examination. 
In the case of Sea- weeds, it is necessary to avoid such specimens as are 
in a state of decay. Those which are taken should be spread out in the 
shade to dry, without washing them with fresh water, and when quite dry, 
packed loosely in a box. Many species are found thrown upon the beach, 
and the pools in the rocks at low water are often filled with excellent 
specimens. The stems of the larger Algge are often covered with parasitic 
species, which should be dried without separation. 

When the specimens (whether Phanerogamous or Cryptogamous) are 
fully dried, they are then selected for the herbarium, and are fastened upon 
fine stiff paper, fit for writing upon, 17 inches by 10^.* In large herbaria, 
which are constantly consulted, the best way of securing the specimens is by 
means of fine thin glue ; the plants, after the glue is put on them, being made 
to adhere to the paper, by pressure between folds of drying paper. Some 
use gummed paper, others use thread or narrow ribbon, by means of which 
the specimens are sewed to the paper. Plants of certain families, as Com- 
positae, are more particularly exposed to the ravages of insects. Hence, all 
plants after being dried, should be brushed over with an alcoholic solution 
of corrosive sublimate. f This treatment has the inconvenience of dis- 
colouring them more or less completely, and making them assume a light 
brown tint ; but there can be no hesitation between the alteration of their 
colour and the complete destruction with which they are menaced, if not 
submitted to the above manipulation; some recommend cyanide of potassium 
to destroy insects. In herbarium-presses camphor is employed to prevent 
the attack of insects. The specimens must be kept dry, and frequently 
examined, and when insects are present, they must be retouched with the 
solution already indicated. Dry fruits, specimens of wood and bark, large 
roots, lichens and minute Algse in rocks or stones, or other specimens which 
cannot be preserved in a herbarium, may be either placed in drawers, in 
glazed cases, or in glass jars. 

The size of the wooden Case for the herbarium must of course depend 

* The paper used in Edinburgh is made by Cowan and Co. under the name of " M. B. Laid 
Medium, flat 4to," and costs two guineas a ream when cut. 

t The solution commonly used consists of 30 grains of camphor, and 20 grains of common 
sublimate to an ounce of alcohol. 



CASES FOR HERBARIUM. 49 

on the extent of the collection. In a private collection it is better to have 
numerous small Cases which are easily removed at pleasure along with the 
specimens. This should be particularly attended to by medical students 
and others who have the prospect of going abroad, and who may wish to 
transport their collections to foreign countries. In such instances, the 
Cases should be strongly made, and should be not more than four feet high, 
^^^th two rows of drawers. These drawers are made open in front, and 
should slide freely in the Case. In the Edinburgh University Herbarium, 
the size of the drawers or trays is — depth (inside measurement) 4 inches, 
length 19 inches, and breadth 11 J inches. The size of the trays should of 
course correspond to that of the herbarium paper. Some collectors have 
peculiar fancies in regard to the size of their herbarium. Thus a valuable 
collection of Cryptogamic plants and grasses left by Menzies to the Edin- 
bm-gh Botanic Garden has the following dimensions : — Height of the 
mahogany cases 30 inches, breadth in front 28i, from front to back 11 ; 
depth of the trays (inside measurement) 4|- inches, length 9 J, breadth 6. 

Specimens in a Moist State. — In preserving fresh specimens of 
fruits, and the other parts of plants, the best mode is to put them into a 
saturated solution of salt and water. They can thus be sent home from 
foreign countries in jars or barrels. In making a museum of such speci- 
mens, they are put into glass jars, the sizes of which should be regular — 
4, 8, 12, and 16 inches high, with a diameter varying according to the size 
of the specimen. The glasses may be filled with the following solution, 
which is nearly the same as that used by Goadby, and which seems to 
answer well in most instances : — 

Bay salt 4 ounces. 

Burnt alum 2 ounces. 

Corrosive sublimate 5-10 grains. 

Boiling water 2 quarts. 

Dissolve and filter the solution. Alcohol is often used, but it usually makes 
all colours alike brown. It is useful for delicate specimens which are 
required for dissection. Pyroligneous acetic acid diluted with from 3 to 
5 parts of water is also very generalty employed. Specimens, however, in 
the acid are apt to become pulpy and brittle after a few years, so as not to 
admit of being handled ; most colours are altered by it. Before being put 
in jars, fresh specimens should be kept for a month or more in the solu- 



50 



SPECIMENS IN A MOIST STATE. 




Fig. 27. 



tion, so as to allow any colouring matter and other impurities to be sepa- 
rated, otherwise the preparation will become obscure 
and require to be re-adjusted. The mouth of the glass 
jars may be conveniently covered with India rubber, 
or in the case of glasses of small diameter, with a watch 
glass secured by sealing wax, or by circular glass covers 
cemented by a lute composed of resin 1 part, wax 2 
parts, and vermilion 1 part. The glass cover on the 
top of the jar may be either luted or held in its place 
by a metallic ring (fig. 27a), which is fitted carefully to 
it, and covers a portion of the glass lid. Two grooves 
may be made on the inner side of the rim at the top of 
the jar for holding a piece of whalebone, to which the 
specimen may be attached by means of a thread, as seen in the figure. 
In the case of dry preparations, the metallic ring answers well. 

It is difficult to keep the solution of salt in the preparation jar. Dr, 
Christison says : — " The most effectual method, when the mouth of the jar 
does not exceed 2 or 2 J inches in diameter, is to have a space half an inch 
or more at the top of the fluid, to clean and dry the top of the jar 
thoroughly, to drop melted sealing-wax on the upper surface of the top, so 
as to form a uniform ring over it, to place over the mouth a watch-glass of 
such size as to cover the whole lip, and even to overhang it a little, to 
press this gently down with one finger, and to fuse the wax between the top 
of the jar and the watch glass, by moving a large spirit flame around the 
edge." Where the mouth of the jar is large, then a round flat piece of 
glass may be used, or sheet caoutchouc. The latter, after being gently 
heated, is stretched moderately, not strongly, by one, or still better, by two 
persons, while a third secures round the neck two or three folds of stout 
twine as a temporary ligature. A stout thin cord is then drawn steadily 
and tightly round three or four times above the former, taking care that 
the caoutchouc is not cut, and that the turns of the twine lie regularly 
above each other ; and finally, that a secure knot is made. 

Seeds, when sent from abroad, should be collected perfectly ripe and 
dry, and if possible kept in their entire seed-vessels. Small seeds may 
be folded in cartridge paper, and should be kept in a cool and airy place 



Fig. 27. Jar for holding wet or diy preparations, the glass cover at the top being held 
in its place by a metallic ring. 



HINTS AS TO ALPINE TRAVELLING. 51 

during transport. Large seeds and oily seeds, which lose their germinating 
power speedily, are best transported in earth. A box about 10 inches 
square, with the sides f of an inch thick, answers well. In this may be 
put alternate layers of earth and seeds, the whole being pressed firmly 
together. Living plants are best transported in Wardian cases, and 
seeds or fruits may also be scattered in the earth of the cases. Bulbs 
and rhizomes not in a state of vegetation, cuttings of succulent plants, as 
aloes and cactuses, and the pseudo-bulbs of Orchideous plants, may be put 
into a box or barrel with dry moss, sand, peat, or sawdust. 



Hints as to the preparations to he made for alpine travelling ^ particularly in 
Switzerland, partly tahenfrom WilW " Wanderings on the High Alpe^ 

A botanical trip for six weeks in Switzerland, including the expense of 
going and coming, need not cost more than twelve shilKngs a day. In a 
pedestrian tour the traveller must be as lightly equipped as possible ; at 
the same time he must so provide as to have a change of dress in case of 
wet weather. The Botanist must send his heavy portmanteau and his 
drying paper, with boards, rope, and rack-pin, to different points by rail- 
way or post. During his alpine rambles, he will find that he can only 
carry his box, spade, field-book, alpenstock, and light waterproof. His 
knapsack, while he is hotanizing, must be carried by a porter. He should, 
however, be prepared on an emergency to carryall his alpine baggage 
with him, more especially when passing from one station to another by 
some beaten track, where few plants are to be expected. A large party 
will find it convenient and economical to hire a horse for the conveyance of 
their knapsacks. 

The articles required are as follows : — 

A hght waterproof knapsack, which will bear rough usage, about 14 
inches long, 10 inches broad, and 3J inches deep, with two light straps at 
the top to hold a very light waterproof, and a stout leather handle by 
which to carry it, if necessary. The straps for the shoulders should be 
broad. One of the shoulder straps should end in a ring, and a hook should 
be fastened on the lower edge of the knapsack to receive it. By this con- 
trivance the knapsack is easily taken off. The whole apparatus ought not 
to weigh above 2 lbs. 

Good shoes, large, so as to allow for the swelling of the feet, the soles 



52 HINTS AS TO ALPINE TRAVELLING. 

from I to I of an inch thick, studded with stout nails, not too thickly. 
They should be worn with gaiters, so as to keep out dust, stones, etc. 

Soft woollen socks, such as those made in Shetland. Of these two or 
three pairs are required. 

A shooting coat, a waistcoat, and trousers of flannel, or of shepherd's 
plaid, the two former being double-breasted. Flannel should alwa3^s be 
worn next the skin on account of rapid changes of temperature on the 
glaciers and in the valleys. 

A light wide-awake hat with strings or elastic band. In very hot 
weather the action of the sun on the forehead and temples may be dimi- 
nished by a thick roll of white muslin round the hat. 

A light waterproof of silk ; one may be got weighing only six ounces. 

The contents of the knapsack should not weigh more than 6 or 7 lbs. 
They should consist of two spare thin merino shirts, three or four pairs of 
socks, well run in heels and toes, a very thin pair of trousers or drawers 
for change, two pocket handkerchiefs, and a pair of light shoes ; materials 
for mending — as needles, thread, worsted, tape, buttons, bits of cloth and 
flannel ; also string, soap, sponge, brush and comb, razor, and tooth-brush ; 
oiled-silk, lint, and bandages ; ordinary medicine — as compound rhubarb 
pills, opium, and sugar of lead and opium pills, tartar emetic, lard, and 
sticking-plaster ; a small quantity of note-paper, ink, pens, wafers ; a large 
knife, furnished with a corkscrew, gimlet, and saw ; lucifers ; a pair of 
dark spectacles, and a dark veil, and warm gloves and muffitees. There 
may be also added a journal, a thermometer, compass, clinometer, 
whistle, and a small telescope. A flask and drinking-cup will also be of 
service, and a common coarse blouse, which can be procured in Switzerland 
for two francs. For travelling on glaciers a fevv^ screws, about | of an inch 
long, with large double-pointed heads, are useful. Wills procured them at 
Chamouni. These are screwed into the sole, three or four being enough for 
each shoe. 

For glacier work, stout ropes, thicker than a window-sash cord are re- 
quired, 10 to 15 feet for each person, and an ice hatchet. An alpenstock, 
6 feet in length, is of essential service. A good map is also of great value. 
The botanist must also have a small tin box, 10 or 1 2 inches in length, and 
about 4 deep ; a small spade, in a leathern case, fastened round his waist, 
and a small field-book for drying plants, made of thin wooden boards, 8 or 
9 inches long, and about 5 inches broad, and containing drying paper, about 



DIRECTIONS TO FOREIGN COLLECTORS. 53 

1 or IJ inch deep. The plants gathered must be transferred to larger 
drying paper at different stations, and must then either be carried by a 
porter, or sent by conveyance of some sort. 

It is by no means necessary to have guides in every part of the Alps of 
Switzerland. For instance, Mr. Wills says, that none are required for 
the Col de Balme, the Tete Noire, the Col de Vose, the Great St. Bernard, 
the Gemmi, and the Grimsel. In wandering, however, among the high 
mountains, it is always safe to take a guide. Wills suggests that the best 
way is to secure a good guide at starting, and keep him during the whole 
tour. He costs about five or six francs a day. 

Directions to Collectors visiting Foreign Countries^ condensed from 
Hooker's Kew Miscellany, Vol. IX., p. 214-219. 

A Botanist visiting a foreign country should make as perfect a collec- 
tion as possible of all the plants, neglecting no species and preserving 
specimens of every kind, more especially such as seem to be confined to 
certain localities. The arborescent plants, trees of every description, are 
to be sought for and collected in flower and in fruit ; cones and larger 
acorns, and other kinds too large for the hortus siccus, are to be preserved 
apart from the foliage, and notes made of the locality, height, bulk of the 
trunk, etc. In proportion as mountains are ascended, the vegetation will 
be found to change and to become more interesting and more peculiar. 
Particular notice should be taken of the heights at which different plants 
grow, and of those plants which are found nearest to the limit of perpetual 
snow. Care should be taken to preserve the collections from wet and damp. 
They may require to be opened occasionally, and exposed to a dry air or 
artificial heat. Seeds should be collected, and transported in the way 
already noticed. Objects of interest as regards economic botany should 
be collected; such as articles of food, clothing, ornament, medicines, 
resins, dye-stuffs, samples of woods, particularly those good for carpentry 
and cabinet-work. Varieties and abnormal forms of species should be 
sought for and preserved ; attention being paid to differences in habit and 
in the form of leaves and flowers in the same species at different periods 
of growth and in different conditions of growth. A comparison should be 
instituted between the flowers of different regions, as of the plains, swamps, 
and of different heights and exposures on the mountains, as well of different 



54 DIRECTIONS TO FOREIGN COLLECTORS. 

geological districts, as granite, limestone, etc. The times of leafing and 
flowering of bushes and trees, etc., should be noticed. When the vegetation 
seems unusually retarded or accelerated, the temperature of the surface 
soil and at three feet deep should be ascertained, wherever possible. The 
collector should, as soon as possible, make himself acquainted with the names 
of the more common and conspicuous plants of the district he traverses, by 
consulting any works which may have been written regarding it. The plants 
which afiect waysides or the tracks of man and animals should be noticed, and 
the effect of clearing away forests and of burning grass land on the sub- 
sequent vegetation should be attended to. The transport of seeds by man 
and animals is a subject of great interest, which should not be neglected. 
Care should be taken to ticket the specimens, so that there may be no 
difficulty in determining tlieir localities afterwards. Notes as to elevation 
(if above 2000 feet of the sea level), dates, name of district, and any other 
information, should be attached to the specimens to which they refer. A 
collector cannot be too careful in regard to these matters. Ascertaining 
the temperature of the trunks of evergreen and deciduous trees and of the 
soil at their roots is a subject of importance. The temperature of the soil 
at various depths during winter should be recorded ; also the temperature 
of the air and water between the under surface of melting snow-beds and 
the subjacent dormant vegetation, with the view of determining the 
causes of the rapidity with which plants germinate and blossom after th 
disappearance of snow from alpine situations.* 

* For fuller details see instructions by Sir Wm. Hooker and Dr. Hooker in Kew Miscellany 
Vol, ix., pp. 214-219. 



GLOSSAEY, 



EXPLANATION OF SOME OF THE MOST IMPORTANT 
BOTANICAL TEEMS. 



A, alpha, privative of the Greek, placed before a 
Greek or Latin word, indicates the absence of 
th.e, oi^aii; thus, apkyliuSf leafless, acaulis, 
steniless. 

Ab AXIAL or Abaxile, not in the axis, applied to 
the embryo when out of the axis of the seed. 

Abnorm:al, deviating from, regularity or from the 
usual form or structure. 

Abortion, suppression of an organ, depending 
on non-deveJopment. 

Abrupt, ending in an abrupt manner, as the 
truncated leat of the Tulip tree; ahruptly-pin- 
tiate, ending in 2 pinnae, in other words, pari- 
pinnate; abruptly -acuminate, a leaf with a 
broad extremity fiora which a point arises. 

Abscission, cutting off, apphed to the separation 
of the segments or frusiules of Diatoms. 

AcAULis or AcAULESCENT, without an evident 
stem. 

Accrescent, when parts continue to grow and 
increase after flowering, as the calyx of Phy- 
sahs, and the styles of Anemone Pulsatilla. 

Accrete, grown together. 

AccuMBENT, apphed to the embryo of Cruciferse, 
when the cotyledons have their edges apphed 
to the folded radicle. 

AcERosE, narrow and slender, with a sharp 
point. 

AcHENE or AcH.ENnj'M:, a monospermal seed- 
vessel which does not open, but the pericarp of 
which is separable Irom the seed. 

AcHLAMTDEOus, having no floral envelope. 

Achromatic, applied to lenses which prevent 
chromatic aberration, t. e., show objects with- 
out any prismatic colours. 

AcicuLAR, like a needle in form. 

AcicuLUs, a strong bristle. 

AciNACiroRM, shaped like a sabre or scimitar. 

Acinus, one of the pulpy drupels forming the 
fruit of the Raspberry or Bramble, 

AcTiNENCHTMA, cellulax tissuc, having a star-like 
or stellate form. 

AcoTYLEDONOCs, haviug no cotyledons. 



AcRocARPi, Mosses having their fmctificatioQ 
terminating the axis. 

AcROGKN and Acrogenotjs, a stem formed by 
the bases of fronds in ferns, increasing by its 
summit, and having its vascular tissue in the 
form of irregularly formed bundles. 

AcuLEUS, a prickle, a process of the bark, not of 
the wood, as in the Rose; Aculeate^ furnished 
with prickles. 

Acuminate, drawn out into a long point. 

Acute, terminating gradually in a sharp point. 

Adelphous or Adelphia, iu composition, means 
union of filaments. 

Adhkrent, united, adhesion of parts that are 
normally separate, as when the calyx is unittd 
to the ovary. 

Ad NATE, when an organ is united to another 
tliroughout its whole length, as the stipules in 
Rose, and the filament and anther in Ranun- 
culus. 

Adpressed or Appressed, closely applied to a 
surface, as some hairs. 

Aduncus, crooked or hooked. 

Adventitious, organs produced in abnormal 
positions, as roots arising from aerial stems. 

J^stivation, the arrangement of the parts of 
the flower in the flower-bud. 

Aefinity, relation in all essential organs. 

Agamous, the same as Cryptogamous. 

Ala, a wing, apphed to the lateral petals of a 
papihonaceous flower, and to membranous 
appendages of the fruit, as in the Elm, or of 
the seed, as in pines. 

Albumen, the nutritious matter stored up with 
the embryo, c^ed also Ferisperm and Endo- 
sperm. 

Alburnum, the outer young wood of a Dicotyle- 
donous stem. 

Algology, the study of Sea-weeds. 

Alsinaceous, a polypetalous corolla, in which 
there are intervals between the petals, as in 
Chickweed, 

Alternate, arranged at different heights on the 



56 



GLOSSARY. 



same axis, as when each leaf is separated by 

interaodes by those next to it. 
Alveola, regular cavities on a surface, as in 

the receptacle of the Sunflower, and in that 

of Nelumbiuni which is called Alveolate. 
AlMEntum, a catkin or deciduous unisexual spike ; 

plants having catkins are Amentiferous. 
Amnios, the fluid or semi-fluid matter in the 

embryo-sac. 
Amorphous, without definite form. 
Amphisaeca, an indehiscent multilocular fruit 

with a hard exterior j and pulp round the seeds, 

as seen in the Baobab. 
Amphitropal, an ovule curved on itself, with 

the hilura in the middle. 
Amplexicaul, embracing the stem over a large 

part of its circumference. 
Ampulla, a hollow leaf, as in Utricularia. 
Analogous, when a plant strikingly resembles 

one of another genus, so as to represent it. 
Anastomosis, union of vessels; union of the 

final ramifications of the veins of a leaf. 
Anatropal or Anatropous, an inverted ovule, 

the hilum and micropyle being near each other, 

and the chalaza at the opposite end. 
Anceps, two-edged. 

Andk(ECIum, the male organs of the flower. 
Androgynous, male and female flowers on the 

same peduncle, as in some species of Carex. 
Androphore, a stalk supporting the stamens, 

often formed by a union of the filaments. 
Aner, male or stamen, in composition, Andro 

and Androus. 
Anpraciuose, wavy or sinuous, as the anthers 

of Cucurbitaceee. 
Angienchyma, vascular tissue in general. 
Angiospermous, having seeds contained in a 

seed-vessel. 
An isos, in composition, means unequal. 
Anisostemonous, stamens not equal in number 

to the floral envelopes, nor a multiple of them. 
Annotinus, a year old. 

Annulus, a ring, applied to the elastic rim sur- 
rounding the sporangia of some Ferns, also to 

a cellular rim on the stalk of the Mushroom, 

being the remains of the veil. 
Anterior, same as inferior, when applied to the 

parts of the flower in their relation to the 

axis. 
Anthela, the cymose panicle of Juncacese. 
Anther, the part of the stamen containing pollen. 
Antheridium, male organ in Cryptogamic 

plants, frequently containing moving filaments. 
Antherozoa, moving filaments in an antheri- 
dium. 
Anthesis, the opening of the flower. 
A^THOCARPOus, applied to Liultiple or poly- 

gynoecial fruits, formed by the ovaries of seve- 
ral flowers. 
Anthodium, the capitulum or head of flowers 

of Composite plants. 
Anthophore, a stalk supporting the inner floral 

envelopes, and separating them from the calyx, 
Anthos, a flower, in composition, Antho;'in. 

Latin Flos. 
Anthotaxis, the arrangement of the flowers on 

the axis. 
Anticus, placed in front of a flower, as the lip 

of Orchids; Anthene Antiae, anthers which 



open on the surface next the centre of the 
flower ; same as Introrse. 

Antitropal, applied to an embryo whose radicle 
is diametrically opposite to the hilum. 

Aperispermic, without separate albumen ; same 
as Exalhuminous. 

Apetalous, without petals, in other words, mo- 
nochlamydeous. 

Aphyllous, without leaves. 

Apical or Apicilar, at the apex ; often apphed 
to parts connected with the ovary. 

Apiculate, having an apiculus. 

Apiculus or Apiculum, a terminal soft point 
springing abruptly. 

Apocarpous, ovary and fruit composed of nu- 
merous distinct carpels. 

Apophysis, a swelling at the base of the theca 
in some Mosses. 

Apothecium, the rounded, shield-like fructifica- 
tion of Lichens. 

Apterous, without wTngs. 

Arachnoid, applied to finehairs so entangled as 
to resemble a cobweb. 

Archegonium, the young female cellular organ 
in Cryptogamic plants. *" 

Arcuate, curved in an arched manner like a bow. 

Areolate, divided into distinct angular spaces, 
or Areolce. 

Aeillus and Abillode, an extra covering on the 
seed, the former proceeding from the placenta, 
the latter from the exostome, as in Mace. 

Arista, an awn, a long pointed process, as in 
Barley and many grasses which are called 
Aristate. 

Armiture, the hairs, prickles, &c., covering an 
organ. 

Articulated, Jointed, separating easily and 
cleanly at some point. 

Ascending, applied to a procumbent stem, 
which rises gradually from its base ; to ovules 
attached a little above the base of the ovary ; 
and to hairs directed towards the upper part 
of their support. 

AsciDiuM, a pitcher or folded leaf, as in Ne- 
penthes. 

Ascus, a bag, applied to the thecse of Lichens 
and other Cryptogams, containing sporidia or 
spores. 

Asperity, roughness, as on the leaves of Boragi- 
nacese. 

Atractenchyma, tissue composed of spindle- 
shaped cells. 

Atropous or Atropal, the same zsOrtJioiropotts. 

Auriculate, having appendages, applied to 
leaves, having lobes or leaflets at their base. 

Awn and Awned, see Arista and Aristate. 

Axil, the upper angle where the leaf joins the 
stem. 

AxiLE or Axial, belonging to the axis. 

Axillary, arising from the axil of a leaf. 

Axis, is applied to the central portion of the young 
plant, whence the plumule and radicle are 
given ofi', and the name is given in general to 
the central organ bearing buds; in Grasses, 
the common stem of a locusta. 

Bacca, berry, a unilocular fruit having a soft 
outer covering, and seeds immersed in pulD. 
All such fruits are called Baccate. 



GLOSSiiRT. 



57 



Balausta, the fruit of the Pomeg:ranate. 
Barbatk, Bkarded, having tufts of hair-like 

pubescence. 
Bark (cortex), the outer cellular and fibrous co- 
vering of the stem ; separable from the wood 
in Dicotyledons. 
Barren, not fruitful, applied to male flowers, 

and to the non-fructifying fronds of ferns. 
Basal or Basilar, attached to the base of an 

organ. 
Basidium, a cell bearing on its exterior one or 
more spores in some Fungi, which are hence 
called BasJdicsporous. 
Bast or Bass, the inner fibrous bark of Dicotyle- 
donous trees. 
Bedeguar, a hairy excrescence on the branches 
and leaves of Roses, caused by an attack of a 
Cynips. 
B IDE N 'J ATE, having two tooth-like processes. 
BiPA Rious, in two rows, one on each side of an axis. 
Bifid, two-cleft, cut down to near the middle 

into two parts. 
Bifortne, a raphidian ceU witli an opening at 

each end. 
BiLAMELLAR, having two lamellse or flat divi- 
sions, as in some stigmas. 
BiLOcuLAR, having two loculaments. 
BiNATE, applied to a leaf composed of two leaf- 
lets at the extremity of a petiole. 
Bipartite, cut down to near the base into two 

parts. 
Bipinnate, a compound leaf divided twice in a 

pinnate manner. 
BiPiNNATiFiD, a simple leaf, with lateral divi- 
sions extending to near the middle, and which 
are also similarly divided. 
BipiNNATiPARTiTE, differing from bipinnatifid 

in the divisions extending to near the midrib. 
Biplicate, doublyfolded in a transverse manner. 
Biporose, having two rounded openings. 
Bis, twice, in composition Bi. 
BiSERRATE, or duplicate-serrate, when the serra- 

tures are themselves serrate. 
BiTERXATE, a compound leaf divided into three, 

and each division again divided into three. 
Bitten, same as Premorse. 
Blade, the lamina or broad part of a leaf, as dis- 

tinguised from the petiole or stalk. 
Blanching, see Etiolation. 
Bletting, a peculiar change in an austere fruit, 
by which, after being pulled, it becomes soft 
and edible, as in the Medlar. 
Bole, the trunk of a tree. 
Bothren-chy3ia, dotted or pitted vessels, with 

depressions on the inside of their walls. 
Brachiatk, with decussate branches. 
Bract, a leaf more or less changed in form, from 
which a flower or flowers proceed; flowers 
having bracts are called Bracteated. 
Bracteole or Bractlef, a small bract at the 
base of a separate flower in a multifloral inflo- 
rescence. 
Bryology, the study of Mosses; same as Musco- 
logy, 
Bulb, an underground bud covered with scales. 
Bulbil or Bulblkt, separable buds in the axil 

of leaves, as in some Lilies. 
Bulbous-based, applied to hairs which are tu- 
mid at the base. 



Byssoid, very slender, like a cobweb. 

Caducous, falling off very early, as calyx of 

Poppy. 
C^spTTosE, growing in tnfts. 
Calathiform, hemispherical or concave, like a 

bowl or cup. 
Calaihium, same as Capitulum and Anthof^ium. 
Calcas, a spur, a projecting hollow or solid pro- 
cess from the base of an orgati, as in the flowers 

of Larkspur and Snapdragon ; such flowers are 

called Calcarate or spurred. 
Calckolate, slipper-like, applied to the hollow 

petals of some Orchids, also to the petals of 

Calceolaria. 
Callosity or Callus, a leathery or hardened 

thickening on a limited portion of an organ. 
Calyciflor^, a sub-class of Polypetalous Exo- 

gens, having the stamens attached to the calvx. 
Calyculus or Caliculus, an outer calycme 

row of leaflets, giving rise to a double or caly- 

culate calyx. 
Calyptra, the outer covering of the sporangium 

of Mosses. 
Calyx, the outer envelope of the flower; when 

there is only one envelope, it is ttie calyx. 
Cambium, mucilaginous cells, between the bark 

and the young wood, or surrounding the vessels. 
Campanulate, shaped like a bell, as the flower 

of Hare-beil. 
Campulitropal or Campy loteo pal, a curved 

ovule with the hilum, micropyle, and chalaza 

near each other. 
Canaliculate, channelled, having a longitudi- 
nal groove or furrow. 
Can CELL ate, latticed, composed of veins alone. 
Capillary, fiiilorm, tbread-like or hair-like. 
Capitate, pin-like, having a rounded summit, 

as some hairs. 
Capitulum, head of flowers in Compositae. 
Capreolate, having tendrils. 
Caprification, the ripening of the Fig, by means 

of the wild fig or Caprificus. 
Capsula Circumscissa, same as Pyxl'i or Pyxi- 

dium. 
Capsule, a dry seed-vessel, opening by valves, 

teeth, pores, or a lid. 
Carina, keel, the two partially united lower 

petals of papilionaceous flowers. 
Carinal, apphed to aestivation when the carina 

embraces the other parts of the flower. 
Carnose, fleshy, applied to albumen having a 

fleshy consistence. 
Carpel or Carpidium, the leaf forming the 

pistil. Several carpels may enter into the 

composition of one pistil. 
Carpology, the study of fruits. 
Carpophork, a stalk bearing the pistil, and 

raising it above the whorl of the stamens, as in 

Lychnis and Capparis. 
Carpos, fruit, in composition Carpo. 
Caruncula, a fleshy or thickened appendage of 

the seed. 
Caryopsis or Cariopsis, the monospermal seed- 
vessel of Grasses, the pericarp being incorpo- 
rated with the seed. 
Cassideous, shaped like a helmet. 
Catkin, same as Amentum. 
Caudate, having a tail or feathery appendage. 



58 



GLOSSARY. 



Caudex, the stem of Palms and of Tree-fcins. 

Caudicle, Caudicula, the process supporting 
a pollen-mass in Orchids. 

Caulescent, having an evident stem. 

Gaulicle, Cauliculus, a stalk connecting the 
axis of the embryo and the cotyledons. 

Caulis, an aerial stem. 

Cellulose, the chemical substance of which 
the cell-wall is composed. 

Centimetre, a Fr^^nch measure, equal to 
0.3937079 British incli. 

Centrifugal, appKed to that kind of inflo- 
resceiice> in which the central flower opens 
first. 

Centripetal, applied to that kind of inflores- 
cence in which the flowers at the circumference 
or base open first. 

Cerajviidium, an ovate conceptacle having a 
terminal opening, and with a tuft of spores 
arising from the base ; seen in Algaa. 

Ceratium, a siliquseform capsule in which the 
iobes of the stigma are alternate with the pla- 
centa, as in GlauciuRL 

Cereal, applied to Wheat, Oats, Barley, and 
other grams. 

Cernuous, pendulous, nodding. 

Chalaza, the place where the nourishing vessels 
enter the nucleus of the ovule. 

Chlamys, covering, applied to the floral envelope, 
in composition Chlamydeotis. 

Chlorophyll, the green colouring matter of 
leaves. 

Chloros, green, in composition Chloro. 

Chorisis or Chorization, separation of a 
lamina from one part of an organ so as to form 
a scale or a doubling of the organ ; it may be 
either transverse or collateral. 

Chroma, colour, in composition Chrom. 

Chromogen and Chromule, the colouring mat- 
ter of flowers. 

Chrysos means yellow like gold, in composition 
Ghryso. 

Cicatricula, the scar left after the falling of a 
leaf; also applied to the hilum or base of the 
seed. 

Cilia (Cilium), short stiff hairs fringing the mar- 
gin of a leaf; also delicate vibratiie hairs of 
zoospores. 

Cinenchyma, laticiferous tissue, formed by 
anastomosing vessels. 

CiRciNATE, roiled up like a crozier, as the young 
fronds of Ferns. 

Circumscissile, cut round in a circular man- 
ner, such as seed-vessels opening by a lid. 

Circumscription, the periphery or margin of a 
leaf. 

Cirrhus, a tendril, or modified leaf in the form 
of a twining process. 

Clajdenchyma, tissue composed of branching 
cells. 

Clados, a branch, in composition Clado. 

Clathratus, latticed like a grating. 

Clavate, club-shaped, becoming gradually thick- 
er towards the top. 

Claw, the narrow base of some petals, corre- 
sponding to the petiole of leaves. 

Cleft, divided to about the middle. 

Clinandrium, the part of the column of Orchids 
bearing the anther 



Clinanthium, tne common receptacle of the 

flowers of Compositae. 
Cline, a bed, in composition Cdn, used in re- 
ference to parts on whicti the floral organs are 

inserted. 
Clo^^s, applied to young bulbs, as in the 

(Jnion. 
Clypeate, having the shape of a buckler. 
CocciDiuM, a rounded conceptacle in Algse 

without pores, and containing a tuft of 

spores. 
Coccus and Coccum, applied to the portions 

composing the dry elastic fruit of Euphor- 

biaceae. 
Cochlear, a kind of aestivation, in which a 

helmet-shaped part covers all the others in the 

bud. 
CocHLEARiFORM, shaped like a spoon. 
Coleorhiza, a sheath covering the radicles of a 

monocotyledonous embryo. 
Collateral, placed side by side, as in the case 

of some ovules. 
Collenchyma, the inter-cellular substance which 

unites cells. 
CoLLUM, neck, the part where the plumule and 

radicle of the embryo unite. 
Colpenchyma, tissue composed of wavy or 

sinuous cells. 
Columella, central column in the sporangia 

of Mosses ; also applied to the carpophore of 

Umbelliferae, 
Column, a part in the flower of an Orchid sup- 
porting the anthers and stigma, and formed by 

the union of the styles and filaments. 
Coma, applied variously, to tufts of hairs, to 

bracts occurring beyond the inflorescence, 

and to the general arrangement of the leaf- 
bearing branches of a tree, &c. 
Commissure, union of the faces of the two 

achenes in the fruit of UmbelliferEe. 
Comose, furnished with hairs, as the seeds of the 

Willow. 
Compound, composed of several parts, as a leaf 

formed by several separate leaflets, or a pistil 

formed by several carpels either separate or 

combined. 
Compressed, flattened laterally or lengthwise 
Conceptacle, a hollow sac containing a tuft or 

cluster of spores. 
Conducting Tissue, applied to the loose cellular 

tissue in the interior of the canal of the style. 
Conduplicate, folded upon itself, apphed to 

leaves and cotyledons. 
Cone, a dry multiple fruit, formed by bracts 

covering naked seeds. 
Conenchyma, conical cells, as hairs. 
CoNFERVoiD, formed of a single row of cells, or 

having articulations like a Conferva. 
Confluent, when parts unite together in the 

progress of growth. 
Conjugation, union of two cells, so as to de- 

velope a spore. 
Connate, when parts are united even in the early 

state of development ; applied to two leaves 

united by their bases. 
Connective, the part which connects the an- 
ther lobes. 
Connivent, when two organs, as petals, arch 

over so as to meet above. 



GLOSSAllY. 



59 



Contorted, when the parts in a hud are imhri- 
cuted and regularly twisted in one direction 

Convolute or Convolutive, when a leaf in the 
bud is rolled upon itself. 

Coralline, like Coral, as the root of Corallor- 
hiza. 

CoRcuLUM, a name for the embryo. 

Cord, the process which attaches the seed to the 
placenta. 

Cordate, heart-shaped, a plane body with the 
division or broad part ot the heart next the 
stalk or stem. 

CoRDiFORM, a solid body having the shape of a 
heart 

Coriaceous, having a leathery consistence. 

CoRM, thickened underground stem, as in the 
ColchicuiTi and Arum. 

CoRMOGENiE, having a corm or stem. 

CoRNU, a horn ; Corneous, having tbe consistence 
of horn; Blcornis or Bicornute, having two 
horns. 

Corolla, the inner envelope of the flower. 

CoROLLiFLORiE, Gamopetalous Exogcns, with 
hypogynous stamens. 

Corona, a corolline appendage, as the crown of 
the Daffodil. 

Corrugated, wrinkled or shrivelled. 

Cortex, the bark; Cortical, belonging to the 
bark ; Corticated, having a bark. 

Cortina, the remains of the veil which continue 
' attached to the edges of the pileus in Agarics. 

Corymb, a raceme in w^hich the lower stalks are 
long; st, and all the flowers come nearly to a 
level above ; Cori/mbiferous or Corymbose, bear- 
ing a corymb, or in the form of a corymb. 

Costa, a rib, applied to the prominent bundles 
of vessels in the leaves ; Coitate, provided with 
ribs. 

Cotyledon, the temporary leaf or lobe of the 
enibiyo. 

Crampons, a name given to adventitious roots 
which serve as fulcra or supports, as in the 
Ivy. 

Cremocarp, the fruit of UmbellifersB, composed 
of two separable achenes or mericarps. 

Crenate, having superficial rounded marginal 
divisions 

Crenatures, divisions of the margin of a cre- 
nate leaf. 

Crest, an appendage to fruits or seeds, having 
the form of a crest. 

Crisp, having an undulated margin. 

CR0V7N OF THE BooT, the short stem which is at 
the upper part of the root of perennial herbs. 

Cruciform and Cruciate, arranged like the 
parts of a cross, as flowers of Cruciferse. 

Crustaceous, hard, thin, and brittle; applied 
to those Lichens which are hard and expanded 
like a crust. 

Crytogamous, organs of reproduction obscui-e. 

Cryptos, inconspicuous or concealed, in compo- 
sition Crypto. 

CucuLLATE, formed like a hood. 

Culm, stem or stalk of grasses. 

Cuneiform or Cuneate, shaped like a wedge 
standing upon its point. 

Cupula, tbe cup of the acorn, formed by aggre- 
gated bracts. 

CurvembryevE, with the embryo curved. 



Cuspis, a long point large at the base, and gra- 
dually attenuated ; CM^/jiia/^, prolonged into a 
cuspis, abruptly acuminate. 

Cuticle, the thin layer that covers the epider* 
mis. 

Cyathiform, like a wine-glass ; concave, m the 
form of a reversed cone. 

Cyclogens, applied to Dicotyledons with con- 
centric woouy circles. 

Cyclosis, movement of the latex in laticifcrous 
vessels. 

Cylindrenchyma, tissue composed of cylindri- 
cal cells 

Cymbiform, shaped like a boat. 

Cyme, a kind of definite inflorescence, in which 
the flowers are in racemes, corymbs, or umbels, 
the successive central flowers expanding first ; 
Cymose, inflorescence in the form of a cyme. 

Cypsela, monospermal fruit of Compositse. 

Cystidia, sacs containing spores ; a kind of fruc- 
tification in Fungi. 

Cytoblast, the nucleus of a cell. 

Cytoblastema, mucilaginous formative matter 
of cells, called also Protoplasm. 

Cytogenesis, cell-development. 

Cytos, a cell, in composition Cyto. 

DiEDALENCHYMA, entangled cells. 

Deca, ten, in Greek words, same as the Latin 
Decern; as decandrous, having ten stamens; 
decagynous, having ten styles. 

Deciduous, faUing off after performing its func- 
tions for a limited time, as calyx of Ranunculus. 

Deciduous Trees, which lose their leaves an- 
nually. 

Decimetre, the tenth part of a metre or ten cen- 
timetres. 

Declinate or Declining, directed downwards 
from its base, applied to stamens of Amaryllis. 

Decompound, a leaf cut into numerous com- 
pound divisions. 

Decorticated, deprived of bark. 

Decumbent, lying flat along the ground, and 
rising from it at the apex. 

Decurrent, leaves which are attached along 
the side of a stem below their point of inser- 
tion. Such stems are often called Winged. 

Decussate, opposite leaves crossing each other 
in pairs at right angles. 

Deduplication, same as Chorisis. 

Definite, applied to inflorescence when it ends 
in a single flower, and the expansion of the 
flower is centrifugal; also when the number 
of the parts of an organ is limited, as when 
the stamens are under twenty. 

Deflexed, bent downwards in a continuous 
curve. 

Defoliation, the fall of the leaves. 

Degeneration, when an organ is changed from 
its usual appearance and becomes less highly 
developed, as when scales take the place of 
leaves. 

Dehiscence, mode of opening of an organ, as of 
the seed-vessel and anther. 

Deltoid, like the Greek A in form, properly 
applied solely to describe the transverse section 
of soKds. 

Dentate, toothed, having short triangular divi. 
sions of the margin. The term is also applied 



60 



GLOSSARY. 



to the superficial divisions of a gamosepalous 
calyx and a gamopetalous corolla. 

Denticulate, tinely-tootlied, having small tooth- 
like projections along the margin. 

Depressed, flattening of a s(iiid organ from 
above downwards. 

Determinate, applied to definite or cymose in- 
florescence. 

Dextrorse, directed towards the right. 

DiACH^ENiUii, same as Cremocarp, fruit com- 
posed of two achenes. 

DiACHYMA, the parenchyma of the leaf. 

DiADELPHODS, stamens in two bundles, united 
by their filaments. 

DiALYCARPOUS, pistil or fruit composed of dis- 
tinct (separate) carpels. 

DiALYPETALOUs, coroila composed of separate 
petals, 

DiALYSEPALOUS or DiALYPHYLLOUS, calyx Com- 
posed of separate sepals. 

Dichla:mydeous, having calyx and corolla. 

DiCHOTOMOUS, stem dividing by twos. 

Diclixous. unisexual flowers, either monoecious 
or dioecious. 

Dicotyledonous, embryo having two cotyledons. 

DiCTYOGENOUS, appUed'to monocotyledons hav- 
ing netted veins. 

DiDYMOUS, tuice, union of two similar organs. 

DiDrNA:MOUS, two long and two short stamens. 

Digitate, compound leaf composed of several 
leaflets attached to one point. 

DiGYNOUS, having two styles. 

DiLAMiNATiON, Same as Deduplication and Cko- 
risis. 

Dimerous, composed of two pieces. 

Dimidiate, split into two on one side, as the 
calyptra of some Mosses. 

Dimorphous, when similar parts of a plant 
assume difterent forms. 

DicEcious. staminiferousand pistilliferous flowers 
on separate plants. 

Diplecolobe^, cotyledons twice folded trans- 
versely. 

DiPLOOS, double, in composition Dlplo. 

Diploperistomi, Mosses with a double peri- 
stome. 

DiPLosTEMONOus, stameus double the number 
of the petals or sepals. 

Dipterous, having two wliigs. 

Dis, twice in composition, Di, same as Latin Bis 
or JBi : as disepalous, having two sepals, disper- 
moHSj two seeded. 

Disciform and Discoid, in the form of a disc 
or flattened sphere; discoid pith, divided into 
cavities by discs. 

Discoid, also apphed to the flosculous or tubular 
flowers of Compositfe. 

Discs, the pecuUar rounded and dotted markings 
on coniferous wood. 

Disk, a part interveuing between the stamens 
and the pistil in the form of scales, a ring, etc. 

Dispermous, having two seeds. 

Dissected, cut into a number of narrow divi- 
sions. 

Dissepiment, a division in the ovary ; fr^ie, when 
formed by edges of the carpels"- false, v/hen 
formed otherwise. 

DissiLiENT, applied to fruit which bursts in an 
elastic manner. 



Distichous, in two rows, on opposite sides of a 
stem. 

DisTRACTiLE, Separating two parts to a distance 
from each other. 

DiTHECAL, having two loculaments. 

Divaricating, branches coming off from the 
stem at a very -wide or obtuse angle. 

DoDECA, twelve ; in Latin Duodeclm. 

DoDECAGYNOus, having twelve pistils. 

DoDECANDROus, having twelve stamens. 

DoLABRiFORM, shaped like an axe. 

Dorsal, apphed to the suture of the carpel which 
is farthest from the axis. 

Dorsiferous, Ferns bearing fructification on 
the back of their fronds. 

Dorsum, the back, the part of the carpel which 
is farthest from the axis. 

Double Flower, when the organs of reproduc- 
tion are converted into petals. 

Drupe, a fleshy fruit like the Cherry, having a 
stony endocarp. Drupels, small drupes aggre- 
gated to form a fruit, as in the Raspberry. 

Dumose, having a low shrubby aspect. 

Duramen, heart- wood of Dicotyledonous trees. 

Dynamis, power, in composition means supe- 
riority in length ; as didi/namous, two stamens 
longer than two others. 

E or Ex, in composition corresponds to alpha, pri- 
vative; as ebracteuted,witho'at bracts; exaristate, 
without awns ; edentate^yfnfhoutteethiecostaUt 
withoat ribs. 

Elateks, spiral fibres in the spore-cases of He- 
paticse. 

Elliptical, having the form of an ellipse. 

Emarginate, with, a superficial portion taken 
out of the end. 

Embryo, the young plant contained in the seed. 

Embryo-buds, nodules in the bark of the Beech 
and other trees. 

Embryogeny, the development of the embryo in 
the ovule. 

Embryology, the study of the formation of the 
embryo. 

Embryo-sac or Embryonary-sac, the cellular 
bag in wliich the emi)ryo is formed. 

Embryotega, a process raised from the spermo- 
derm by the embryo of some seeds during ger- 
mination, as in the Bean. 

Endeca, in Greek, eleven ; in Latin, nndecim. 

Endecagynous, having eleven pistils. 

Endecandrous, having eleven stamens. 

Endocarp, tiie inner layer of the pericarp next 
the seed. 

Endochrome, the colouring matter of cellular 
plants. 

Endogen, an inside grower, having an endoge- 
nous stem. 

Endon, within or inwards, in Composition 
Etido. 

Endophlceum, the inner bark or liber. 

Endopleura, the inner covering of the seed. 

Endorhizal, numerous rootlets, arising from a 
common radicle, and passing thi'ough sheaths, 
as in endogenous germination. 

Endosmose, movement of fluids inwards, through 
a membrane. 

Endosperm, albumen formed within the embrvo- 
sac. 



GLOSSARY. 



61 



Emdosporous, yungi Laving their spores con- 
tained in a case. 
Endostome, the inner foramen of the ovule. 
Endothecium, the inner coat of the anther. 
Enervis, without veins. 
Ennea, nine ; in Latin Novem. 
Enneagyxous, liaving nine pistils. 
Enxeandrol'S, liaving nine stamens. 
ExsiFORii, in the form of a sword, as the leaves 

of Iris. 
Entire {integer), ^nthout marginal divisions; 
i intefferrimus), without either lubes or marginal 
divisions. 
En^t:lope3, Floral, the calyx nnd corolla. 
Epi, upon, in composition, means on the outside 
or above, as epicarp, the outer covering of the 
fruit ; epigynons, above the ovary. 
Epicalyx, outer calyx, formed either of sepals 

or bracts, as in Mallow and Potentilia. 
Epicarp, the outf^r covering of the fruit. 
Epichilium, the label or terminal portion of the 
strangulated or articulated lip (labelium) of 
Orchids. 
Epicorolline, inserted upon the corolla. 
Epidermis, the cellular layer covering the ex- 
ternal surface of plants. 
Epigeal, above ground, applied to cotyledons. 
Epigone, the cellular layer which covers the 

young sporangium in Mosses and Hepaticse. 
Epigynous, above the ovary hy adhesion to it. 
Epipetalous, inserted upon the petals. 
Epiphragm, the membrane closing the orifice of 

the thecse of some Mosses. 
Epiphyllous, growing upon a leaf. 
Epiphyte, attached to another plant, and grow- 
ing suspended in the air. 
Epirrheology, the influence of external agents 

on living plants. 
Episperm;, the external covering of the seed. 
Epispore, the onter covering of some spores. 
Equitant, applied to leaves folded longitudi- 
nally, and overlapping each other without any 
involution. 
Erect, applied to an orule which rises from the 
base of the ovary; also applied to innate 
anthers. 
Erose, irregularly toothed, as if gnawed. 
Erumpent, prominent, as if bursting through 

the epidermis, as seen in some tetraspores. 
Et^rio, the aggi-egate drupes forming the fruit 

of Kuhus. 
Etiolation, blanching, losing colour in the dark, 
Exalbuminous, witliout a separate store of al- 
bumen or perisperm. 
Exannulate, without a ring, applied to some 

Ferns. 
ExcENTRic, removed from the centre or axis ; 

applied to a lateral embryo. 
Excipulus, a receptacle containing fructification 

in Lichens. 
ExcuRRENT, running out beyond the edge or 

point. 
ExiNTiNE, one of the inner coverings of the pol- 
len-grain. 
Exo, in composition, on the outside. 
ExoGEN, outside o;rower, same as Dicotyledon. 
Exorhizal, radicle proceeding directly from 
the axis, and afterwards branching,' as in 
Exogens. 



ExosMosE, the passing outwards of a fluid 
through a membrane. 

Exospoiious, Jungi having naked spores. 

ExosTOME, the outer opening of the foramen of 
the ovule. 

ExoTHECiUM, the outer coat of the anther. 

ExsERTED, extending b^-yond an organ, as sta- 
mens beyond the corolla. 

ExsTiPULATE, -without stipulcs. 

ExTiNE, the outer covering of the pollen-grain 

Extra-axillary, removed from the axil of the 
leaf, as in the case ot some buds. 

ExTRORSE, applied to anthers which dehisce on 
the side farthest removed from the pisli! 

Exutht:, applied by Miers to seeds wanting the 
usual integumentary covering, as in i .dacaceae. 

Falcate or Falciform, bent like a sickle. 

Farinaceous, mealy, containing much starch 

Fasciation, union of branches of stems, so as 
to present a flattened riband-hke form. 

Fascicle, a shortened umbellate cyme as in 
some species of Dianthus. ' 

Fastigiate, having a pyramidal form, from the 
branches being parallel and erect, as Lombardv 
Poplar. ^ 

Favella, a kind of conceptncle in Algge. 

Fatellidia, spherical masses of spores usually 
contained in sacs called capsules. 

Feather-veined, a leaf having the veins pass- 
ing Irora the midrib at a more or less acute 
angle, and extending to the maro-in 

Fenestrate, applied to a replurn or leaf with 
openings in it, compared to v.indows. 

Fertile, applied to pistillate flowers; and to the 
fruit-bearing frond of Ferns. 

Fibro-cellular tissue, composed of spiral cella 

Fibrous, composed of numerous fibres, as some 
roots. 

FiBRo-VASCULAR tissuc, composcd of vessels 
containing spiral and other fibres. 

Fid, in composition, clett, cut dowTi to about the 
middle. 

Fila:.ient, stalk supporting the anther 

F1LA.MENTOUS, a string of cells placed end to 
end. 

Filiform, like a thread. 

Fimbriated, fringed at the margin. 

FissiPAROus, dividing spontaneously into two 
parts, by means of a septum. 

Fissure, a straight slit in an organ for the dis- 
charge of its contents. 

Fistulous, hollow, like the stem of Grasses. 

Flabelliform, fan-shaped, as the leaves of some 
Palms. 

Flagellum, a runner, a weak, creepi'no- stem 
bearing rooting buds at different pomts, as in 
the Strawberry. 

Flexuose or Flexuou3, having alternate curva- 
tions m opposite directions ; bent m a zit^-zao- 
manner. ° " 

Flocci, woolly filaments with sporules in Fungi 
and Alg£e. 

Floccose, covered with wool-like tufts. 

Floral En-yelopes, the calvx and corolla. 

Flosculous, the tubular florets of Compositse. 

Foliation, the development of leaves. 

Foliola, same as Phylla and Sepala. 

Follicle, a fruit formed by a single carpel, de- 



62 



GLOSSARY. 



hiscing by one suture, which is usually the 
ventral. 

Foot, French, equal to 1.07892 foot British. 

FoRAiiEN, the opening in the coverings of the 
o\'ule. 

FovEATE or FovEOLATE, having pits or depres- 
sions caUed foveae or foveolse. 

FoviLLA, minute granular matter in the pollen- 
grain. 

Frond, the leaf-like orjran of Ferns bearing the 
fructification ; also applied to the thallus of 
many Cryptogamics. 

Feondose,' applied to Cryptogams with folia- 
ceous or leaf-like expansions. 

Fbitstules, the parts or fragments into which 
Diatomaceae separate. 

Frutex, a shrub ; Fruticosr, shrubby. 

Fugacious, evanescent, falling otf early, as the 
petals of Cistiis. 

Fulvous, tawny-yellow. 

Funiculus, the umbilical cord connecting the 
hilum of the ovule to the placenta. 

Furcate, divided into two branches, like a two- 
pronged fork. 

FuRFURACEOUS, scurfy or scaly. 

Fusiform, shaped like a spindle. 

Galbulus, the polygynoecial succulent fruit of 

Juniper. 
Galea, appHed to a sepal or petal shaped like a 

helmet ; the part is called Galcate. 
Gamo, in composition, means union of parts. 
Gamopetalous, same as Monopetalous, petals 

united. 
Ga^^iophyllous and Gamosepalous. same as 

Monophyllons and Monosepnious, sepals united. 
Geminate, twin organs combined in pairs, same 

as Binate. 
Gemma, a leaf-bud; Gemmation, the develop- 
ment of leaf-buds. 
Gemmiferous, bearing buds. 
Gemmiparous, reproduction by buds. 
Gemmule, same as Plumule, the first bud of the 

embrA'O. 
Geniculate, bent like a knee. 
Germen, a name for the ovary. 
Germinal Vesicle, a cell contained in the em- 
bryo sac, from which the embryo is (developed. 
Germination, the sprouting of the young plant. 
Gibbosity, a swelling at the base of an organ, 

sucli as the calyx or corolla. 
Gibbous, swollen at the base, or having a distinct 

swelling at some part of the surface. 
Glabrous, smooth, without hairs. 
Gland, an organ of secretion consisting of cells, 

and generally occurring on the epidermis of 

plants. 
Glandular Hairs, hairs tipped with a gland, 

as in Drosera and Chinese Primrose. 
Glans, nut, apphedtothe Acorn and Hazel-nut, 

which are enclosed in bracts. 
Glaucous, covered with a pale-green bloom. 
Globule, male cru-an of Chara. " 
Glochidiate, barbed, applied to hairs with two 

rcfipxed points at their summit. 
Glomerulus, a rounded, cymose inflorescence, 

as in Urtica. 
Glossology, explanation of technical terms. 
Glumaceous, of the nature of gluuics. 



Glume, a bract covering the organs of reproduc- 
tion in the spikelets of Grasses, which are 
hence called Glumiferons. 

Glumelle and Glumellule, a name applied to 
the palea or pale of a Grass. 

GoNiDiA, green germinating cells in the thallus 
of Lichens. 

GoNUS or GoNUM, in composition, means either 
kneed or angled; in the former case the o is 
short, in the latter lorg, Foh/aonum, niany- 
kneed ; Tetragonum, four-angled. 

Grain, caryopsis, the fruit of Cereal Grasses. 

Grains of 'pollen, minute cells composing the 
pollen. 

Granules, minute bodies and varying greatly 
in size, having a distinct external shadowed 
ring or margin, the external edge of which is 
abrupt. 

Granulated, composed of granules. 

Grumous, collected into granular masses. 

Gymnogen, a plant vrith naked seeds, i. e., seeds 
not in a true ovary. 

Gymnos, naked, in composition Gymno. 

Gymnospermous, plants with naked seeds, i.e., 
seeds not m a true ovaiy, as Conifers. 

Gymnospore, a naked spore; Gi/mnosporotis, 
having naked spores. 

Gymnostomi, naked-mouthed, V. osses without a 
peristome. 

Gynandrous, stamen and pistil united in a com- 
mon column, as in Orchids. 

Gyne, female, and Gyn, Gynous, and Gyxo, 
in composition, refer to the pistil or the ovary. 

Gynizus, the position of the stigma on the 
column of Orcliids. 

Gynobase, a central axis to the base of which 
the carpels are attached. 

Gyncecium, the female organs of the flower. 

Gynophore, a stalk supporting the ovary. 

Gynostemium, column in Orchids bearing the 
organs of reproduction. 

Gyrate, same as Circinate. 

Gyration, same as Rotation in cells. 

Habit of a plant, its general external appear- 
ance. 
Halophytes, plants of salt-marshes, containitig 

salts of soda in their composition. 
Hastate, halbert-shaped, applied to a leaf with 

two portions at the base projectina: more cr 

less completely at right angles to the blade. 
Haulm, dead stems ot'herbs, as ot the potato. 
Haustorium, the sucker at the extremity of the 

parasitic root of Dodder. 
Heart-wood, same as Duramen. 
Helicoidal, having a coiled appearance like the 

shell of a snail, applied to inflorescence. 
Helmet, the upper petaloid sepal of Aconitum. 
Hemi, half; same as Latin Seini. 
Hemicarp, one of the achenes forming the cre- 

mocarp of Umbeliiferse. 
Hepta, seven ; same as Latin Sepfem.. 
Heptagynous, having seven styles. 
Heptandrous, having seven stamens. 
Herb, a plant with an annual stem, opposed to a 

woody plant. 
Herbaceous, gxeen succulent plants which die 

down to tiie ground in winter; annual shoots; 

green -coloured cellular parts. 



GLOSSARY. 



63 



Her»iaphrodite, stamens and pistil in the same 

flower. 
Hesperidium, the fruit of the Orange, and other 

Aurantiaceae. 
Heterocephalous, Composite plants ha\dng 

male and female capitula on the same plnnt. 
Heterocysts, pecuhar cells forming large germs 

in Nostocliineffi. 
Heterodromous, running in different directions. 
Heterogamous, Composite p'ants having her- 
maphrodite and unisexual flowers on the same 

head. 
Heterophyllous, presenting two different 

forms of leaves. 
Heterorhizal, rootlets proceeding from various 

points of a spore during germination. 
Heteros, dissimilar or diverse, in composition 

Hetero. 
Heterotropai^ ovnle with the hilum in the mid- 
dle, and the foramen and chalaza at opposite 

ends. 
Hexa, six ; same as Latin ^ex. 
Hexagynous, having six styles. 
Hexandrous, having six stamens. 
Hilum, the base of ihe seed to which the pla- 
centa is attached either directly or by means 

of a cord. The term is also applied to the mark 

at one end of some grains of starch. 
Hirsute, covered with long stiff hairs. 
Hispid, covered with long very harsh hairs. 
Histology, the study of microscopic tissues. 
HoLOSERiCEOUs, covercd with minute silky 

hairs, discovered better by the touch than by- 
sight. 
HoiioDROMOUS, Tunniug in the same direction. 
HoMOGAMOUS, Composite plants having the 

flowers of the capitula all hermaphrodite. 
Homogeneous, having a uniform structure or 

substance. 
Homos and Homoios, similar, in composition 

Homo. 
Homotropal, when the slightly curs-ed embryo 

has the same general direction as the seed. 
Horological, flowers opening and closing at 

certain hours. 
Humifuse, spreading along the ground. 
Hyalike, transparent or colourless, applied by 

Barry to the part where the ceU-nucleus 

appears. 
Hybrid, a plant resulting from the fecundation 

of one species by another. 
Hyihenium, the part which bears the fructifica- 

don in Agarics. 
Hypanthodium, the receptacle of Dorstenia, 

beariu'z many flowers. 
Hyphasma, a web-like thallus of Agarics. 
Hypo, under or belr>w, in composition Hijp. 
Hypocarpogean, plants producing their fruit 

below ground. 
Hypochilium, the lower part of the labellum 

of Orchids. 
Hypocrateriform, shaped like a salver, as the 

corolla of Primula. 
Hypogeal or Hi:pogeous, under the surface of 

the soil, apnlied to cotyledons. 
Hypogynous, inserted below the ovary or pistil. 
Hypotiiallus, the mycelium of certain Ento- 

phytic liingi as Uredines. 
Hypsometrtcal, measurement of altitude. 



Hysteranthous, when leaves expand after the 
flowers have opened. 

Icosandria, having twenty stamens or more 
inserted on the calyx; Icoaandrous, having 
twenty stamens. 

Icosi, twenty; in composition Icos. Same as 
Latin Viginli. 

Imbricate or Imbricated, parts overlying each 
other like tiles on a house. Imbricated cestivation, 
the parts of the flower-bud alternately over- 
lapping each other and arranged in a spiral 
manner. 

Impari-pinnate, unequally-pinnate, pinnate leaf 
ending in an odd leaflet. 

Inarching, a mode of grafting by bending two 
growing plants towards each other, and caus- 
ing a branch of the one to unite to the other. 

Inarticulate, without joints or interruption to 
continuity. 

Inch, French, is equal to 1.06578 inch British. 

Incised, cut down deeply. 

Included, applied to the stamens when enclosed 
vrithin the corolla, and not pushed out beyond 
its tube. 

Incumbent, cotyledons with the radicle on their 
back. 

Indefinite, applied to inflorescence with centri- 
petal expansion ; also to stamens above twenty, 
and to ovules and seeds when very numerous. 

Indehiscent, not opening; having no regular line 
I of suture. 

Indeterminate, applied to indefinite inflores- 
cence. 

Indigenous, an aboriginal native in a country. 

Induplicate or Induplicative, edges of the 
sepals or petals turned shghtly inwards in 
sestivation. 

Indusium, epidermal covering of the fructifica- 
tion in some Ferns. 

Indutive, applied by Miers to seeds having the 
usual integumentary covering. 

Inermis, unarmed, without, prickles or thorns. 

Inferior, applied to the ovary when it seems to 
be situated below the calyx ; and to the part of 
a flower farthest from the axis. 

Inflorescence, the mode in which the flowers 
are arranged on the axis. 

Infundibuliform, in shape like a funnel ; as 
seen in some gamopetalous corollas. 

Innate, applied to anthers when attached to the 
top of the filament. 

Innovations, buds in Mosses. 

Intercellular Space, same as Lacuna. 

Interfoliar, between two opposite leaves. 

Internode, the portion of the stem between two 
nodes or leaf-buds. 

Interpetiolar, between the petioles of opposite 
leaves ; as the stipules of Cinchona. 

Interruptedly-pinnate, a pinnate leaf in 
which pairs of small pinnae occur between the 
larger pairs. 

Intextine, one of the inner coverings of the pol- 
len-grain. 

Intine, the inner covering of the pollen-grain. 

Introrse, applied to anthers which open on the 
side next the pistil. 

Involucel. bracts surrounding the partial umbel 
of Umbelliferse. 



64 



GLOSSAKY. 



Involucre, bracts siirrotintling the general 
umbel iu Umbelliferse, the heads of flowers in 
Compositse, and in general any verticillate 
bracts surromiding numerous flowers. It is 
also used in the same sense as the Indusium 
of Ferns. 

Intolute or Involutive, edges of leaves rolled 
inwards spirally on each side, in aestivation. 

IjRREgular, a flower in which the parts of any 
of the verticils differ in size. 

IsocHEiiviAL or IsocHEiMONAL. Hues passlng 
through places which have the same mean 
T;\'inter temperature. 

Isomeric, applied chemically to substances 
which, though differing in qualities, have the 
same elements in the same proportions. 

IsoMEKOUS, when the organs of a flower are 
composed each of an equal number of parts. 

Isos, equal, in composition Iso. 

IsosTEMONOUS, whcu stamcus and floral enve- 
lopes have the same number of parts or mul- 
tiples. 

IsoTHERAL. lines passing through places which 
have the same mean summer temperature. 

Isothermal, lines passing through places which 
have the same mean annual temperature. 

JuGA, a name given to the ribs on the fruit of 
Umbelliferae. 

JuGUM, a pail* of leaflets ; Jw^a^^, applied to the 
pairs of leaflets in compound leaves ; iinijiigate^ 
one pair; bijugate, two pairs, and so on. 

Keel, same as Carina. 

Knotted, when a cylindrical stem is swollen at 
intervals into knobs. 

Label, the terminal division of the lip of the 
flower in Orchids. 

Labellum, lip, one of the divisions of the inner 
whorl of the flower of Orchids. This part is 
in reality superior, but becomes inferior by the 
twisting of the ovary. 

Labiate, lipped, applied to irregular gamo- 
petalous flowers, with an upper and under 
portion separated more or less by a hiatus or 
gap. 

Laciniated, irregularly cut into narrow seg- 
ments. 

Lacinula, the small inflexed point of the petals 
of Umbelliferss. 

Lactescent, yielding milky juice. 

Lacuna, a large space in the midst of a group 
of cells. 

L^vigatus, having a smooth polished appear- 
ance. 

L^vis, even. 

Lamella, gills of an Agaric, also applied to flat 
divisions of the stigma. 

Lamina, the blade of the leaf, the broad part of 
a petal or sepal. 

Lanceolate, narrowly elliptical, tapering to each 
end. 

Lanuginous, woolly, covered with long flexuous 
interlaced hairs. 

Lateral, arising from the side of the axis, not 
terminal. 

Latex, granular fluid contained in laticiferous 
vessels. 



Laticiferous, vessels containing latex, which 
anastomose. 

Latisept^, Cruciferous plants having a broad 
replum in their silicula. 

Legume, a pod composed of one carpel, opening 
usually by ventral and dorsal suture, as in Pea. 

LENTicELj'a small process on the bark of the 
Willow and other plants, whence adventitious 
roots proceed. 

Lenticular, in the form of a doubly - convex 
lens. 

Lepidote, covered with scales or scurf ; Lepis, a 
scale. 

Lianas or Lianes, twining woody plants. 

Liber, the fibrous inner bark or endophlceum. 

LiEBERKUHN, a metallic mirror attached to the 
objective of a microscope for the purpose of 
throwing down light on opaque objects. 

LiGNiNE, woody matter which thickens the cell- 
walls. 

LiGULATE, strap-shaped florets, as in Dande- 
lion. 

LiGULE, a process arising from the petiole of 
grasses where it joins the blade. 

LiGULiFLOR^, Composite plants having ligulate 
florets. 

Limb, the blade of the leaf; the broad part of a 
petal or sepal ; when sepals or petals are united, 
the combined broad parts are denominated col- 
lectively the limb. 

Line, the 12th part of an inch ; Line, Trench, is 
equal to 0.088815 inch British. 

Linear, very narrow leaves, in which the length 
exceeds greatly the breadth. 

LiRELLA, sessile linear apothecium of Lichens. 

Lobe, large division of a leaf or any other 
organ; applied often to the divisions of the 
anther. 

Loculicidal, fruit dehiscing through the back 
of the carpels. 

LocuLUS or L0CULAT.1ENT, a cavity in an ovary, 
which is called unilocular when it has one 
cavity, hilocular with two, and so on. The 
terms are also applied to the anther. 

LocusTA, a spikelet of grasses formed of one or 
several flowers. 

LoDicuLE, a scale at the base of the ovary of 
Grasses. 

LoMENTUM and Lomentaceous, applied to a 
legume or pod with transverse partitions, each 
division containing one seed. 

Lunate, crescent-shaped. 

Lyrate, a pinnatifid leaf with a large terminal 
lobe, and smaller ones as we approach the 
petiole. 

Macropodous, apphed to the thickened radicle 
of a raonocotyledonous embryo. 

Macros, large, in composition Macro. 

Malpighiaceous Hairs, peltate hairs, such as 
are seen in Malpighiacese. 

Manicate, applied to scales surrounding a stalk 
like a frill, and easily removed. 

Marcescent, withering, but not falling off until 
the part bearing it is perfected. 

Marginate, applied to calyx, same as Obsolete. 

Masked, same as Fenonate. 

Math, a term sometimes used for crop ; an agri- 
cultural term. 



GLOSSAllV. 



65 



Mattulla, tne fibrous raatier covering the pe- 
tioles ol Palms. 

Medulla, the cellular pith. 

Medullary Rays or Plates, cellular prolonga- 
tions uniting the pith and the bark. 

Medullary Sheath, sheath containing spii'al 
vessels surrounding the pith in Exogens. 

Meiostemonous or jMiostemonous, the sta- 
mens less in number than the parts of the 
corolla. 

Membranaceous or Membranous, ha%ing the 
consistence, aspect, and structure of a mem- 
brane. 

Meniscus, a lens liaving a concave and a convex 
face, vtith a sharp edge. 

Merenchyma, tissue composed of rounded cells. 

Mkricarp, carpel forming one-half of the fruit of 
Umbelliferae. 

Merithal, a term used in place of internode ; 
applied by Gaudichaud to the different parts of 
the leaf. 

Mesocarp, middle covering of the fruit. 

Mesochilium, middle portion of the labellum of 
Orchids, 

Mesophlceum, middle layer of the bark. 

Mesophyllum, the parenchyma of the leaf. 

Mesos, the middle, in composition Meso. 

Mesosperm, applied to a covering of the seed 
derived from the secundine. 

Metre, equal to 39 37079 inches British. 

Micrometer, instrument for measuring micro- 
scopic objects. 

Micropyle, the opening or foramen of the seed. 

Micros, small, in composition Micro. 

Millimetre, equal to 0.03937079 English inch, 
or 25,39954 miUimetres equal to an English 
inch. 

Mitriform, shaped like a mitre, as the calyptrse 
of some Mosses. 

Molecule, an exceedingly minute body in which 
we cannot discover any determinate external 
circle nor internal centre. 

Monadelphous, stamens united into one bundle 
by union of their filaments. 

Monandrous, havinsT one stamen, 

Monembryony, having a single embryo. 

Moniliform, beaded, cells united, with inter- 
ruptions, so as to resemble a string of beads. 

Monocarpic, producing flowers and fruit once 
during life, and tiien dying. 

Monochlamydeous, flower having a single en- 
velope, which is the calyx. 

Monoclinous, stamens and pistils in the same 
flcwer. 

Monocotyledonous, having one cotyledon in 
the embryo. 

Monoecious, stamens and pistils in different 
flowers on the same plant. 

Monogyncecial, applied to simple fruits, formed 
by the pistil of one flov>rer. 

Monogynous, having one pistil or carpel; also 
applied to plants having one style. 

Monopetalous, same as Gamopetalous. 

Monophyllous, same as Gamophyllous. 

MoNOS, one, in composition Mono and Mnn, as 
Monandrous, one stamen; sometimes applied to 
the union of parts into one, as Monopetalous, 
meaning combined petals ; same as Latin 
Unus. 

D 



MoNOSEPALOUs, samc as GnmosepaJous 

Monospermous or Monospermal, having a 
single seed. 

Monothecal, having a single loculament. 

Monstrosity, an abnormal development, applied 
more especially to double flowers. 

Morphology, the study of the forms which the 
different oro:ans assume, and the laws tliat 
regulate their metamorphoses. 

MucRO, a stiff point abruptly terminating an 
crgan ; Ulucronnte, having a raucro. 

Mucus, definite, peculiar matter forming a cover- 
ing of certain sea-weeds. 

Multicostate, many-ribbed. 

MuLTiFiD, applied to a simple leaf divided late- 
rally to about the middle into numerous por- 
tions i when the divisions extend deeper it is 
Multipartite. 

MuLTiLocuLAR, having many loculaments. 

Multiple, applied to anthocarpous or polygy- 
noecial fruits formed by the union of several 
flowers. 

Muricate, covered v/ith firm, short points or ex- 
crescences. 

Muriform, like bricks in a wall ; applied to cells. 

Muscology, the study of Mosses. 

Muticus, without any pointed process or awn. 

Mycelium, the cellular spawn of Eungi. 

Nake;?, applied to seeds not contained in a true 
ovary ; also to flowers without any floral en- 
velopes. 

Napiform, shaped like a turnip. 

Naturalised, originally introduced by artificial 
means, but become apparently wild. 

Navicular, hollowed like a boat, 

Nectariferous, having a honey-like secretion ; 
applied to petals having depressions or furrows 
at their base, which contain a sweet secretion. 

Nectary, any abnormal part of a flower. It 
ought to be restricted to organs secreting a 
honey-like matter, as in Crown Imperial. 

Nervation or Neuration, same as Venation. 

Netted, applied to reticulated venation, also 
covered with raised lines disposed like the 
threads of a net, 

NiTiDUS, having a smooth and polished surface. 

Node, the part of the stem from which a leaf- 
bud proceeds. 

Nodose, having swollen nodes or articulations. 

Nodulose, applied to roots with thickened knots 
at intervals. 

Nosology, vegetable, the study of the diseases 
of plants. 

NoTORHizE^, radicle on the back of the cotyle- 
dons, as in some Cruciferse. 

Nucleus, the body which gives origin to new 
cells ; also apphed to the central cellular por- 
tion of the ovule and seed. 

NucuLANiuM, applied to the fruit of the Medlar 
having nucules ; some also apply this term to 
the Grape. 

Nucule, hard carpel in the Medlar, also one of 
the parts of fructification in Characese. 

Nucumentaceous, Cruciferse having a dry mo- 
nospermal fruit. 

Nut, properly applied to the glans, but also ap- 
plied to any hard nut-like fruit, as in Carex 
and Runiex. 



66 



GLOSSARY. 



Ob, in composition, means reversed or contrari- 
wise. 

Obcompressed, flattened in front and beliind, 
not laterally. 

Obcordate, inversely heart-shaped, with the 
divisions of the heai't at the opposite end from 
the stalk. 

Oblong, about | as long as broad ; elliptical, 
obtuse at each end. 

Obovate, reversely ovate, the broad part of the 
egs: being uppermost. 

Obsolete, imperfectly developed or abortive; 
applied to the calyx when it is in the form of a 
rim. 

Obtuse, not pointed, with a rounded or blunt 
termination. 

Obvolute, margins of one leaf alternately over- 
lapping those of the leaf opposite to it. 

OcHREA, boot, applied to the sheathing stipule 
of Polygon acese. 

OcTANDROUS, having eight stamens. 

OcTO, eight, in composition Oct. 

OcTOGYNOUS, having eight styles. 

OEciUM and CEcious, in composition, have refer- 
ence to the position of the reproductive organs, 
as Andrcechim, tlie staminal organs; iJicecious, 
stamen and pistil in different flowers. 

Officinal, sold in the shops. 

Offset, same as Propngulum. 

Oleraceous, used as an esculent potherb. 

Oligandrous, stamens under twenty. 

Oligos, few or in small number, in composition 
OUgo and OUg. 

Omphalode, tlie central point of the hilum 
where the nourishing vessels enter. 

OoPHORiDiuM, organ in Lycopodiacese contain- 
ing large spores. 

Opaque, dull, not shining. 

Operculum, hd, applied to the separable part of 
the thecri of Mosses; also applied to the lid of 
certain seed-vessels ; Onerculate, opening by a 
lid. 

Opposite, applied to leaves placed on opposite 
sides of a stem at the same level. 

ORBICULAR; rounded leaf with petiole attached to 
the centre of it. 

Organogeny, the development of organs. 

Organography, the description of the organs of 
plants. 

Orthoploce^, Cruciferas having conduplicate 
cotyledons. 

Orthos, straight, in composition Ortlio, same as 
Latin Rectus. 

Orthotropal and Orthotropous, ovule with 
foramen opposite to the hilum; embryo with 
ra.dicle next the hilum. 

Osmose, the force with which fluids pass through 
membranes in experiments on exosmose and 
endosmose. 

Oval, elhptical, blunt at each end. 

Ovary, the part of the pistil which contains the 
o^Tiles. 

Ovate, shaped like an egg, applied to a leaf with 
the broader end of the e^^ next the petiole or 
axis; Ovate-lanceolate, a lanceolate leaf, which 
is somewhat ovate. 

Ovenchyma, tissue composed of oval cells. 

Ovule, the young seed contained in the 
ovary. 



Pagina, applied to the surface of the leaf, or any 
flat surface. 

Paleontology, the study of Fossils. 

Paleofhytology, the study of Fossil plants. 

Palate, the projecting portion of the under lip 
or personate flowers. 

Palea or Pale, the part of the flower of Grasses 
within the glume; also apphed to the small 
scaly laminas which occur in the receptacle of 
some Compositse. 

Paleaceous, chaffy, covered with small erect 
membranous scales. 

Palmate and Palmatifid, applied to a leaf 
vdlh. radiating venation, divided into lobes lo 
about tlie middle. 

Palmatipartite, applied to a leaf with radiating 
venation, cut nearly to the base in a palmate 
manner. 

Panduriform, shaped like a fiddle, applied to 
an oblong leaf, with a sinus on each side about 
the middle. 

Panicle, inflorescence of Grasses, consisting of 
spikelets on long peduncles coining off in a 
racemose manner. 

Paniculate, forming a panicle. 

Papilionaceous, corolla composed of vexillum, 
two alse, and carina, as in the Pea. 

Papillated and Papillose, covered vath small 
nipple-like prominences. 

Pappus, the hairs at the summit of the ovary in 
Compositse. They consist of the altered caiycine 
limb. Pappose, provided with pappus. 

Paraphyses, fllaments, sometimes articulated, 
occurring in the fructiflcation of Mosses, and 
other Cryptogams ; also apphed by some authors 
to abortive petals or stamens. 

Parasite, attached to another plant, and deriv- 
ing nourishment from it. 

Parenchyma, cellular tissue. 

Parietal, applied to placentas on the wall of the 
ovary. 

Pari-pinnate, a compound pinnate leaf, ending 
in two leaflets. 

Parthenogenesis, production of perfect seed 
with embryo, without the application of pollen. 

Partite or Parted, cut down to near the base, 
the divisions being called Pflrtiiions. 

Patella, rounded sessile apothecium of Lichens. 

Patent, spreading widely. 

Pathology, vegetable, same as Nosology. 

Patulous, spreading less than when patent. 

Pectinate, divided laterally into narrow seg- 
ments, like the teeth of a comb. 

Pedate and Pedatifid, a palmate leaf of three 
lobes, the lateral lobes bearing other equally 
large lobes on the edges next the middle lobe. 

Pedicel, the stalk supporting a single flower; 
such a flower is Pedicellate. 

Peduncle, the general flower-stalk or florat axis. 
Sometimes it bears one flower, at other times 
it bears several sessile or pedicellate flowers. 

Pelagic, growing in many distant parts of the 
ocean. 

Pellicle, the outer cuticu''ar covering of plants. 

Peloria, a name given to a teraxoiogical phe- 
nomenon, wJiich consists in a flower, which is 
usually irregular, becoming regular : for in- 
stance, when Linaria, m place of one spur, 
produces five. 



GLOSSARY. 



67 



Peltate, shield-like, fixed to the stalk by a 
point within the margin ; peltate hairs, attached 
by their middle. 

Pendulous, applied to ovules which are hung 
from the upper p:irt of the ovary. 

Pexicillate, pencilled, applied to a tufted stig- 
ma resembling a camel's hair pencil, as in the 
Nettle. 

Pexni-ner\T3D and Penni-veined, the veins 
disposed like tlie parts of a feather, running 
from the midrib of the leaf to the margin. 

Penta, Pente, five, same as Quinque in Latin. 

Pextagvnous, having five styles. 

Pextajmerous, composed of five parts ; a penta- 
merous fiower has its different whorls in five, 
or multiples of that number. 

Pentandrous, having five stamens. 

Pepo and Peponida, the fruit of the Melon, Cu- 
cumber, and other Cucurbitaceae. 

Per, when placed before an adjective, sometimes 
gives it the value of a superlative, as perpusii- 
lus, very weak ; at other times it means 
through, KS perfoliate, through the leaf. 

Percurrent, running through from top to 
bottom. 

Perennial, living, or rather flowering, for se- 
veral years. 

Perfoliate, a leaf with the lobes at the base, 
united on the side of the stem opposite the 
blade, so that the stalk appears to pass through 
the leaf. 

Peri, around ; in Latin Circa. 

Perianth, a general name for the floral enve- 
lope ; applied in cases where there is only a 
calyx, or where the calyx and corolla are alike. 

Pericarp, the covering of the fruit. 

FERicHiETTAL, applied to the leaves surrounding 
the fruit stalk or seta of Mosses. 

Pericladium, the large sheatliing petiole of 
Umbelliferse. 

Periclinium and Periphoranthium, the in- 
volucre of Compositse. 

Periderm, a name applied to the outer layer of 
bark. 

Peridium, the envelope of the fructification in 
Gasteromycetous i^'ungi. 

Perigone, same as Perianth. Some restrict the 
term to cases in which the flower is female 
or pistilliferous. It has also been applied to 
the involucre of Jungermanniese. 

Perigynium, applied to the covering of the pistil 
in the genus Carex. 

Perigynous, applied to corolla and stamens when 
attached to the calyx. 

Peripherical, appKed to an embryo curved so 
as to surround the albumen, following the 
inner part of the covering of the seed. 

Peri SPERM, the albumen or nourishing matter 
stored up with the embryo in the seed. 

Perispore, the outer covering of a spore. 

Peristome, the opening of the sporangium of 
Mosses after the removal of the calyptra and 
operculum. 

Perithecium, a conceptacle in Cryptogams, 
containing spores, and having an opening at 
one end. 

Persistent, not falling off, remaining attached 
to the axis until the part which bears it is ma- 
tured. 



Personate, a garaopetalous irregular corolla 
having the lower lip pushed upwards, so as to 
close the hiatus between the two lips. 

Pertuse, having slits or holes. 

Perul/E, the scales of the leaf bud. 

Petaloid, like a petal. 

Petals, the leaves forming the coroUine whorl. 

Petiolate, having a stalk or petiole. 

Petiole, a leaf-stalk ; Petiolule, the stalk of a 
leaflet in a compound leaf. 

Phanerogamous, having conspicuous flowers. 

Phaneros and Phonos, conspicuous, in com- 
position Pkanero and Phceno, 

Ph^nogamous, same as Phanerofjamous. 

Phlceum, a name applied in composition to the 
bark. 

Phoranthium, applied to the receptacle of Com- 
positae. 

Phorus, Phorum, and Phore, in words de- 
rived from the Greek, are used as termina- 
tions, meaning, that which bears; equivalent 
to the Latin Terus and Fer. 

Phragma, transverse division or false dissepi- 
ment in fruits, 

Phycology, the study of Algae or Sea- Weeds. 

Phyllaries, the leaflets forming the involucre 
of Composite flowers. 

Phyllodium, leaf-stalk enlarged so as to have 
the appearance of a leaf. 

Phylloid, like a leaf. 

Phyllolobe^, cotyledons green and leafy. 

Phylloptosis, the fall of the leaf. 

Phyllotaxis, the arrangement of the leaves on 
the axis. 

Phyllum, leaf, in composition Phyllo and Phyl- 
loiis ; in Latin Folium. 

Physiognomy, general appearance, without re- 
ference to botanical characters. 

Physiology, Vegetable, the study of the func- 
tions of plants. 

Phytogenesis, the development of the plant. 

Phytography, the description of plants. 

Phytology, the study of plants. 

Phyton, a name given by Gaudichaud to the 
simple individual plant, as represenied by a 
leaf. In words derived from the Greek, Phyton 
and Phyto mean plant. 

Phytozoa, moving filaments in the antheridia of 
Cryptogams. 

Pileorhiza, a covering of the root, as in 
Lemna. 

Pileus, the cap-like portion of the Mushroom, 
bearing the hymenium on its under side. 

Pilose, provided with hairs ; applied to pappus 
composed of simple hairs. 

Pinenchyma, tissue composed of tabular cells. 

Pinna, the leaflet of a pinnate leaf. 

Pinnate, a compound leaf having leaflets ar- 
ranged on each side of a central rib. 

Pinnatifid, a simple leaf cut into lateral seg- 
ments to about the middle. 

PiNNATiPARTiTE, a simple leaf cat into lateral 
segments, the divisions extending nearly to the 
central rib. 

Pinnule, the small pinnae of a bipinnatc or tri- 
pinnate leaf. 

Pistil, the female organ of the flower, composed 
of one or more carpels ; each carpel being com- 
posed of ovary, style, and stigma. 



68 



GLOSSARY. 



PiSTiLLA-TE and PiSTiLLiFEROUS, applied to a 

female flower or a female plant. 
PiSTiLLiDiuM, the female organ in Cryptogams. 
Placenta, the cellular part of the carpel bearing 

the ovnle. 
Placentaby, a placenta bearing numerous 

ovules. 
Placentation, the formation and arrangement 

of the placenta. 
Platys, large or broad ; in composition Platy ; 

in Latin Laius and Late. 
Pleion, several, in composition Pleio; in Latin 

PlurL 
Pleiotrachejs, spu-al vessels with several fibres 

united. 
Plenus, when applied to the flower, means 

double. 
Pleurenchyma, woody tissue. 
Pleurocarpi, Mosses with the fructification 

proceeding laterally from the axils of the 

leaves. 
PLEURORHiZEiE, Crucifcrous plants having the 

radicle of the embryo apphed to tlie edges of 

the cotyledons, which are called Accumhent. 
Plicate and Plicative, plaited or folded like 

a fan. 
Plumose, feathery, applied to hairs having two 

longitudinal rows of minute cellular processes. 
Plumule, the first-bud of the embryo, usually 

enclosed by the cotyledons. 
Pluri, m Latin words means several. 
Plurilocular, having many loculaments. 
Podetium, a stalk bearing the fructification in 

some Lichens. 
PoDOCARP, a stalk supporting the fruit. 
Podogynium, a stalk supporting an ovary. 
Podosperm, the cord attacliing the seed to the 

placenta. 
PoGON, beard; in Latin Barha. 
Pollard-trees, cut down so as to leave only 

the lower part of the trunk, which gives off 

numerous buds und branches. 
Pollen, the powdery matter contained in the 

anther. 
Pollen-tube, the tube emitted by the pollen- 
grain after it is a])plied to the stigma. 
PoLLiNiA, masses of pollen found in Orchids and 

Asclepiads. 
Polyadelphous, stamens united by their fila- 
ments so as to form more than two bundles. 
PoLYANDROUS, staracus above twenty. 
PoLYCARPic, plants which flower and fruit many 

times in the course of their life. 
Polycotyledonous, an embryo liaving many 

cotyledons, as in Firs. 
PoLYEMBRYONY, having more than one em- 
bryo. 
Polygamous, plants bearing hermaplirodite as 

well as male and female flowers. 
PoLYGYNCECiAL, applied to multiple fruits formed 

by the united pistils of many flowers. 
PoLYGYNous, having many pistils or styles. 
Polymorphous, assuming many shapes. 
PoLYPETALOUs, a coroUa composed of separate 

petnils. 
PoLYPHYLLOus, a calyx or involucre composed 

of separate leaflets. 
Polys, many, in composition Poly ; in Latin Mul- 

tus. 



Polysepalous, a calyx composed of separate 

sepals. 
Polyspermal, containing many seeds. 
Pome, a fruit hke the Apple and Pear. 
Pores of the leaf, same as Stomata. 
Porous vessels, same as Pitted or Dotted vessels. 
Porrect, extended forwards. 
Posterior, applied to the part of the flower 

placed next the axis ; same as Superior. 
Posticus, same as Extrorse; applied to anthers. 
Pouch, the short pod or silicle of some Cruciferse. 
Pous, PoDOS, a foot or stalk, in composition 

Podo ; in Latin Pes, Pedis. 
Pr^floration, same as ^Estivation. 
Pr^foliation, same as Vernation. 
Premorse, bitten, applied to a root terminating 

abruptly, as if bitten off. 
Prickles, hardened epidermal appendages, of a 

nature similar to hairs. 
Primine, the outer coat of the ovule. 
Primordial, the first true leaves given off by 

the youiig plant ; also the first fruit produced 

on a raceme or spike. 
Primordial Utricle, the hning membrane of 

cells in their early state. 
Prismenchyma, tissue composed of prismaticai 

cells. 
Process, any prominence or projecting part, or 

small lobe. 
Procumbent, lying on the ground. 
Pro-embryo, cellular body m ovary, from which 

the embryo and its suspensor are formed. 

Sometimes Pro-embryo is used for Prothallus. 
Proliferous, bearing abnormal buds. 
Prone, prostrate, lying fiat on the earth. 
Propagulum, an off-shoot, or germinating bud 

attached by a thickish stalk to the parent 

plant. 
Prosenchyma, fusiform tissue forming wood. 
Prothallium or Prothallus, names given to 

the first part produced by the spore of an 

acrogen in germinating. 
Protoplasm, the matter which seems to be con- 
cerned in the early formation of nuclei and 

cells. 
Pruinose, covered with a coarse granular secre- 
tion, as if dusted. 
PsEUDO, false; in Latin, Spurius. 
Pseudo-bulb, the peculiar aerial stem of many 

epiphytic Orchids. 
Pseudo-spermous, applied to plants bearing 

single-seeded seed-vessels, such as Achenes, 

resembling seeds. 
Pteridographia, a treatise on Ferns. 
Pterocarpus, winged fruit. 
Pubescence, short and soft hairs covering a 

surface, which is hence called Pubescent. 
Pulverulent, covered with fine powdery matter. 
Pulvinate, shaped like a cushion or pillow. 
PuLviNus, cellular swelling at the point where 

the leaf-stalk joins the axis. 
Punctated, applied to the peculiar dotted woody 

fibres of Coniferse. 
Putamen, the hard endocarp of some fruits. 
Pycnide, a papiliseform or wart-like minute 

cellular reproductive body in the thallus of 

Lichens. 
Pyren^, stony coverings of the seeds m the 

Medlar. 



GLOSS-^RY. 



69 



Pyridium, same as Pome. 

Pyriform, pear-shaped. 

Pyxis aud Pyxidium, a capsule opening by a lid. 

QuADRi, in composition means four times. 

QuADRiFARious, in four rows. 

QuADRiFiD, four-cleft, cut down into four parts 
to about the middle. 

QuADRiJUGATE, iiaviiig four pairs of leaflets. 

QuADRiLOCULAR, liaviug four loculameiits. 

Quadripartite, divided deep!}- into four parts. 

QuARTiNE, the fourth coat of the orule, which 
often is changed into albumen. 

QuATERNATE, Icavcs comiug off in fours from 
one point. 

Qui?TARY, composed of five parts, or of a mul- 
tiple of five. 

QuiNATE, five leaves coming off from one 
point. 

Quincunx, when the leaves in the bud are five, 
of which two are exterior, tv/o interior, and the 
fifth covers the interior w^ith one margin, and 
has its other margin covered by the exterior. 
Qumamcial, arranged in a quincunx. 

QuiNQUE, in compound words means five, 

QuiNQUEFiD, five-cleft, cut inio five parts as 
far as the middle. 

QuiNQUELOCULAR, having five loculaments. 

QuiNQUEPARTiTE, divided deeply into five parts. 

QuiNTiNE, the fifth coat of the ovule, otherwise 
called the embryo- sac. 

Race, a permanent variety. 

Raceme, cluster, inflorescence in whicli there is 
a primary axis bearing stalked flowers. 

Racemose,' flowering in racemes, 

Rachis, the axis of inflorescence ; also applied 
to the stalk of the frond in Kerns, and to the 
common stalk bearing the alternate spikelets 
in some Grasses. 

Radiant, applied to flowers which form a ray- 
like appearance, as seen in Umbelliferae and in 
Viburnum, &c. 

Radiate, disposed like the spokes of a wheel ; 
also applied to the florets of the ray or circtmi- 
ference of the capitula of Compositce. 

Radical, belonging to the root, applied to leaves 
close to the ground, clustered at the base of a 
flower stalk. 

Radicle, the young root of the embryo, 

Radius, the ray or outer part of t^e heads of 
Composite flowers. 

Ramal, belonging to the branches. 

Ramenta, the scales or chafl" of Ferns. 

Ramose and Ramous. branched. 

Raphe, the line which connects the hilum and 
the clialaza in anatropal ovules. 

Raphides, crystals found in cells, which are 
hence called Iiaphidian. 

Receptacle, the flattened end of the peduncle 
or rachis, bearing numerous flowers in a head ; 
applied also generally to the extremity of the 
peduncle or pedicel. 

Reclinate, curved downwards from the hori- 
zontal, bent back up. 

Rectembrye^, the embryo straight in the axis 
of tne seed. 

Rectinervis and Recti venius, straight and 
parallel-veined. 



Rectiserial, leaves disposed in a rectilinear 

series. 
Recurved, bent backwards. 
Reduplicate, edges of the sepals or petals 

turned outwards in ssstivation. 
Regma, seed-vessel composed of elastic cocci, 

as in Euphorbia. 
Regular, applied to an organ, the parts of which 

are of similar form and size. 
Reliqule, remains of withered leaves attached 

to the plant. 
Reniform, in shape like a kidney. 
Repand, naving a slightly undulated or sinuous 

margin. 
Replum, a longitudinal division in a pod formed 

by the placenta, as in Cruciferae. 
Resupinate, inverted by a twisting of the stalk. 
Reticulated, netted, applied to leaves having a 

network of anastomosing veins. 
Retiform, like network. 
Retinaculum, the glandular viscid portion at 

the extremity of the caudicle in some poUinia. 
Retinervis and Retivenius, having reticulated 

veins. 
Retrorse, tamed backwards. 
Retuse, when the extremity is broad, blunt, and 

slightly depressed. 
Revolute and Revolutive, leaf with its edges 

rolled backwards in vernation. 
Rhiza, in words derived from the Greek, means 

root. 
Rhizome, a stem creeping horizontally, more or 

less covered by tbe soil, giving off buds above, 

and roots below. 
Rhizotaxis, the arrangement of the roots. 
Rhomboid, quadrangular form, not square, with 

equal sides. 
Rictus, the throat or chink in personate flowers. 
Ringent, a Labiate flower, in w^liich the upper 

lip is much arched. 
Rosaceous, applied to corollas having separate 

sessile petals like the Rose. 
Rosette, leaves disposed in close circles forming 

a cluster. 
Rostellum, a prolongation of tlie upper edge of 

the stigma in some Orchids. 
Rostrate, beaked, having a long sharp point. 
Rotate, a regular ganiopetalous corolla with a 

short tube, the limb spreading out more or less 

at right angles. 
Rotation or Gyration, a peculiar circulation 

of the cell sap, seen in Hydrocharidacece, &c. 
Root-stock, same as Rhizome. 
Rudimentary, an organ in an abortive state 

arrested in its development. 
Rugose, wrinkled. 

Ruminate, applied to mottled albumen, 
RuNciNATE, a pinjiatifid leaf with a triangular 

termination, and sharp divisions pointing down- 
wards, as in Dandelion. 

Saccate, forming a sack or bag, seen in some 
petals. 

Sagittate, like an arrow, a leaf having two pro- 
lon::Ced sharp-pointed lobes projecting down- 
wards beyond the insertion of the petiole. 

Sa:mara, a winged dry fruit, as in the Elm. 

Sarcocarp and Sarcoderm, the mesocarp of 
the fruit having become succulent. 



70 



GLOSSARY. 



Sarcolobe^, cotyledons thick and fleshy, as in 

Eean and Pea. 
Sarmentum, sometimes meaning the same as 

F.arieUum, or runner, at other times applied to 

a twining stem which supports itself hy means 

of others. 
Scabrous, rough, covered with very stiff short 

hairs ; Scabrinsculus, somewhat rough. 
ScALARiFORM, vcssels having bars like a ladder, 

seen in Ferns. 
ScANDENT, climbing by means of supports, as on 

a wall or rock. 
Scape, a naked flower-stalk, bearing one or more 

flowers arising from a short axis, and usually 

with radical leaves at its base. 
ScARious, having the consistence of a dry scale, 

membranous, dry, and slirivelled. 
Scio:n-, the young twig used as a graft. 
ScLEROGEN, the tluckeuing matter of woody 

cells. 
ScoBiFORM, in the form of fihogs, or like fine 

sawdust. 
ScoBiNA, the flexuose rachis of some Grasses. 
ScoRPioiDAL, like the tail of a scorpion, a pe- 

cuhar twisted cymose inflorescence, as in iSo- 

raginacese. 
ScROBicuLATE, pitted, having small depressions. 
ScuTELLUM, a sort of apothecium in lichens. 
Secund, turned to one side. 
Secundine, the second coat of the ovule within 

the primine. 
Segregate, separated from each other. 
Semi, half, same as the Greek Hemi. 
Semiflosoulous, same as Ligulate. 
Seminal, applied to the cotyledons, or seed- 
leaves. 
Sepal, one of the leaflets forming the calyx. 
Septate, divided by septa or partitions. 
Seftem, seven, in Greek Hepta. 
Septenate, organs approaching in sevens ; a 

compound leaf with seven leaflets coming off 

from one point. 
Septicidal, dehiscence of a seed-vessel through 

the septa or edges of the carpels. 
Septifragal, dehiscence of a seed-vessel through 

the back of the loculaments, the valves also 

separating from the septa. 
Septulate, having spurious transverse dissepi- 

Dients. 
Septum, a division in an ovary formed by the 

sides of the carpels. 
Sericeous, silky, covered with flne, close-pressed 

hairs. 
Serrate or Serrated, having sharp processes 

arranged like the teeth of a saw. Biserrate, 

when these are alternately large and small, or 

where the teeth are themselves serrated. 
Serratures, pointed marginal divisions arranged 

like the teeth of a saw. 
Serrulate, with very fine serratures. 
Sesqui, in composition, means one and a half. 
Sessile, without a stalk, as a leaf without a 

petiole. 
Seta, a bristle or sharp hair ; also applied to the 

gland-tipped hairs of Rosacese and Hieracia; 

and to the stalk bearing thetheca in Mosses. 
Setaceous and Setiform, in the form of bristles. 
Setigerous, bearicLg setae. 
Setose, covered with setae. 



\ Sex, in Latin nu., same as Greek Eexa. 
j SiLicuLA or Silicle, a short pod with a double 
! placenta and replum, as in some Cruciferee. 
j SiLicuLos^, bearing a silicle. 
! SiLiQUA, a long pod similar in structure to the 
i silicula. 

i Siliqu^form, fruit like a sihqua in form. 
SiLiQUOSiG. bearing a siliqua. 
Simple, not branching, not divided into separate 

parts ; Simple fruits are those formed by one 

flower. 
SiNisTRORSE, directed towards the left. 
SiNUATED, the margin having numerous large 

obtuse indentations. 
Sinuous, with a wavy or flexuous margin." 
Slashed, divided by deep and very acute in- 
cisions. 
SoBOLES, a creeping under-ground stem. 
Social Plants, such as grownaturally in groups 

or masses. 
SoREDiA, powdery cells on the surface of the 

thallus of some Lichens. 
SoRosis, a compound or polygynoecial succulent 

fruit, such as Breadfruit and Mulberry. 
SoRUS, a cluster of sporangia in rerns ; applied 

also to fructification in Alaria, containing pyri- 

form stipitate spores. 
Spadix, a succulent spike bearing male and fe- 
male flowers, as in Arum. 
Spathaceous, having the aspect and membran- 
ous consistence of a spathe. 
Spathe, large membrauous bract covering nu- 
merous flowers. 
SPATHELLiE, another name for the glumellse of 

Grasses. 
Spathulate, shaped like a spathula, applied to 

a leaf haviug a linear form, enlarging suddenly 

into a rounded extremity. 
Spawn, same as Mycelium. 
Specific C ha racter, the essential character of 

a species. 
Spermatia, motionless spermatozoids in the 

spermogones of Lichens and Fungi. 
Spersiatozoids, moving filaments contained in 

the antheridia of Cryptogams s called also phy- 

tozoa and antherozoids. 
Spermoderm, the general covering of the seed. 

Sometimes applied to the episperm or outer 

covering. 
Spermogone, a microscopic conceptacle in 

Lichens, containing reproductive bodies called 

Spermatia ; also a conceptacle containing 

fructitication in Fungi. 
SPHiERENCHYMA, tissue composcd of spherical 

ceils. 
Spike, inflorescence consisting of numerous 

flowers sessile on an axis. 
Spielelet, small cluster of flowers in Glasses. 
Spine or Thorn, an abortive branch with a hard 

sharp point. 
Spinescent or Spinose, bearing spines. 
Spiral Vessels or Spiroidea, having a spiral 

fibre coiled up inside a tube. 
Spirillum, same as Spermatozoid. 
Spirolobe^, Cruciferse having the cotyledons 

folded transversely, the radicle being dorsal. 
Spongiole or Spongelet, the cellular extremity 

of a young root. 
Sporangium, a case containing spores. 



GLOSSAEY. 



71 



Spore, a cellular germinating body ia Crypto- 
gaiiiic plants. 

Sporidium, a cellular germinating body in Cryp- 
togam; cs containing two or more cells in iis 
interior. 

Sporocarp, the involucre or ovoid-sac containing 
the organs of reproduction in Marsileacese. 

Sporophore, a stalk supporting a spore. 

Sporozoid, a moving spore furnished with cilia 
or vibratile processes. 

Spur, same as Calcur. 

Squama, a scale ; also applied to bracts on the 
receptacle of Compositse, to bracts in the inflo- 
rescence of Ameutifer8e,,and to the lodiculse of 
Grasses. 

Squamose, covered with scales. 

Squarrose, covered with processes spreading at 
right an>£les or in a greater degree. 

Stachys and Stachya, in Greek words signify 
a spike. 

Stamen, the male organ of the flower, formed by 
a stalk or filament and the anther containing 
pollen. 

Stajviinate and Staminiferous, applied to a 
male flower, or to plants bearing male flowers. 

Staminodium, an abortive stamen. 

Standard, same as VexUlum. 

Stellate or Stelliform, arranged like a star. 

Sterigmata, cells bearing naked spores; also 
cellular filaments bearing spcrmatia and stylo- 
scores, in tlie Spermogones and Pycnides of 
Lichens. 

Sterile, male flowers not bearing fruit. 

Stichidia, pod-like receptacles containing 
spores. 

Stichous, at the termination of words means 
a row, as distichous, in two rows. 

Stigma, the upper cellular secreting portion of 
the pistil, uncovered with epidermis ; Stiymatic, 
belonging to the stigma. 

Stimulus, a sting, applied to stinging hairs with 
an irritating secretion at the base. 

Stipe, the stem of Palms and of Tree-ferns ; also 
applied to tjie stalk of Fern -fronds, and to the 
stalk bearing the pileus in Agarics. 

Stipel, a small leaflet at the base of the pinnae 
or pinnules of compound leaves. 

Stipitate, supported on a stalk. 

Stipulary, applied to organs occupying the 
place of stipules, such as tendrils. 

Stipulate, furnished v/ith stipules. 

Stipule, leaflet at the base of other leaves, hav- 
ing a lateral position, and more or less changed 
either in form or texture. 

Stolon, a sucker, at first aerial, and then turn- 
ing dowTiwards and rooting. 

Stoloniferous, having creeping runners which 
root at the joints. 

Stool, a plant from which layers are propagated, 
by bending down the branches so as to root in 
the soil. 

Stomates and Stoma_ta, openings in the epider- 
mis of plants, especially m the leaves. 

Strangulated, contracted and expanded irregu- 
larly. 

Strap-shaped, same as LiguJate; linear, or about 
six times as long as broad. 

Stria, a narrow line or mark. 

Striated, marked by streaks or strias. 



Strigose, covered with rough, strong, adpressed 

hairs. 
Strobilus, a cone, applied to the fruit of I'irs 

as well as to that of the Hop. 
Strophiole, a sort of aril or swelling on the 

surface of a seed. 
Struma, a cellular swelling at the point where 

a leaflet joins the midrib ; also a swelling be- 
low the sporangium of Mosses. 
Stupose, having a tuft of hairs. 
Style, the stalk interposed between the ovary 

and the stigma. 
Stylopod, an epigynous disk seen at the base of 

the styles of Umbelliferse. 
Stylospore, a spore-like body borne on a sterigma 

or cellular stalk, in the Pycnides of Lichens. 
SuBKRous, ha^ang a corky texture. 
Subiculum, same as Hypothalius. 
Subterranean, under ground, same as Hypcgeal. 
Subulate, shaped like a cobbler's awl. 
Succisus, abrupt, as it were cut off, same as 

Fremorse. 
Suffruticose, having the characters of an un- 

dershrub. 
Sulcate, furrowed or grooved. 
Superior, applied to the ovary "when free or not 

adherent to the calyx ; to the calyx when it is 

adherent to the ovary ; to the part of a flower 

placed next the axis. 
SuPERvoLUTE or SuPERVOLUTiVE, a leaf rolled 

upon itself in vernation. 
SuRCULUs, a sucker, a shoot thrown off under- 
ground, and only rooting at its base. 
Suspended, applied to an ovule which hangs 

from a point a little below the apei of the 

ovary. 
SusPENSOR, the cord which suspends the embryo, 

and is attached to the radicle in the young 

state. 
SuTURAL, applied to that kind of dehiscence 

which takes place at the sutures of the fruit. 
Suture, the part where separate organs unite, 

or where the edges of a folded organ adhere; 

the ventral suture of the ovary is that next the 

centre of the flower; the dorsal suture corre- 
sponds to the midrib. 
Syconus, a multiple or polygyncecial succulent 

hollow^ fruit, as in the Pig. 
SiTyiMETRY', applied to the flower, has reference 

to the parts being of the same number, or 

multiples of each other. 
Syn, in composition means united. 
Synantherous, anthers united. 
Synanthos, flowers united together. 
Syncarpous, carpels united so as to form one 

ovary or pistil. 
Syngenesious, same as Synantherous. 
Synochreate, stipules uniting together on the 

opposite side of the axis from the leaf. 

Taphrenchyma, pitted vessels, same as Botk- 

renchyma. 
Tap-root, root descending deeply in a tapering 
undivided manner. 
I Taxonomy, principles of the classification of 
! plants. 
j Tegmen, the second covering of the seed, called 

also Endoplenra. 
I Tegmenta, scales protecting buds. 



72 



GLOSSARY. 



Teratology, study of monstrosities and mor- 
pliological changes. 

Tercine, the third coat of tlie ovule, forming the 
coveriug of the central nucleus. 

Terete, nearly cylindrical, soniewliat tapering 
into a very elongated cone, the transverse sec- 
tion nearly circular. 

Ternary, parts arranged in threes, 

Ternate, compound leaves composed of three 
leaflets. 

Testa, the outer covering of the seed; some 
apply it to the coverings taken collectively. 

Testiculate, root having two oblong tubercules. 

Tetra, in Greek words lour; in Latin Q^wuer or 
Quadri. 

Te'cradynamous. four long stamens and two 
short, as in Cruciferae. 

Tetra GONOus or Tetragonal, having four 
•angles, the faces being convex. 

TetragyjStous, having four carpels or four styles. 

Tetramerous, composed of four parts ; a flower 
is tetramerous when its envelopes ai-e iu fours, 
or multiples of that number. 

Tetrandrous, having four stamens. 

Tetrapterous, having four wings. 

Tetraq.uetrods, having four angles, the faces 
being concave. 

Ti':TRASPORE, a germinating body in Algae com- 
posed of four spore-like cells i but aisu applied 
to those of three cells. 

Tetrathecal, having four loculaments. 

Thalamifloral. parts of the floral envelope in- 
serted separately into the receptacle of thala- 
mus. 

Thalamus, the receptacle of the flower, or the 
part of the peduncle into which the floral organs 
are inserted. 

Thallogens or Thallophytes, plants produc- 
ing a thallus. 

Thallus, cellular expansion in Lichens and other 
Cryptogams, bearing the fructification. 

Theca, sporangium or spore -case containing 
spores. 

Tiiecaphore, a stalk supporting the ovary. 

Thecasporous, applied to Fungi which have 
the spores in thecse. 

Throat, the orifice of a gamopetalous flower. 

Thyrsus, a sort of panicle, m form like a bunch 
of grapes, the inflorescence being mixed. 

Tigellus, the young embryonic axis. 

ToiSE, is equal to 1.9i904 metres or 6.39459 Eng- 
lish feet. 

ToMENTOSE, covered with cottony, entangled 
pubescence called tomentum. 

ToRULOSE, presenting successive rounded swell- 
ings, as iu the moniliform pods of some Cruci- 
Idrse. 

Torus, another name for thalamus; sometimes 
applied to a much developed thalamus, as in 
Nclumbium. 

Tracheae, a name for spiral vessels. 

Trachenchyma, tissue composed of spiral ves- 
sels. 

Transpiration, the exhalation of fluids by 
leaves, &c. 

Treis, three ; Tris, thrice, in composition Tri. 

Triadelphous, stamens united in three bundles 
by their filaments. 

Triandrous, having three stamens. 



Triangular, having three angles, the faces being 
flat. 

Trichotomous, divided successively into three 
branches. 

Tricoccous, formed by tltree elastic monosper- 
mal carpels. 

Tricostate, three-ribbed, ribs from the base. 

Tricuspidate, having three long points or cus- 
pides. 

Tridkntate, having tliree teeth. 

Trifarious, in three rows, looldng in three di- 
rections. 

Trifid, three-cleft, a leaf divided into three seg- 
ments v/hich reach to the middle. 

Trifoliate or Trifoliolate, same as Ternate. 
When the three leaves come oft' at one point 
the leaf is ternatehi -trifoliolate ; when there is a 
terminal stalked leaflet and two lateral ones, it 
is pimiately- trifoliolate. 

Trigonous, having tin ee angles, the faces being 
convex. 

Trigynous, having three carpels or three styles. 

Trijugate, having three pairs of leaflets. 

Trilocular, having three loculaments. 

Trcierous, composed of three parts; atrimerous 
floiver has its envelopes in three or multiples of 
three. 

Trinervis, having three ribs springing together 
from the base. 

Tricecious, a species producing hermaphrodite, 
staminate, and pistillate flowers on three sepa- 
rate individuals. 

Tripartite, deeply divided into three. 

Tripinnate, a compound leaf three times divided 
in a pinnate manner. 

Tripinnatifid, a pinnatifid leaf with the seg- 
ments twice divided in a pinnatifid manner. 

Triplicostate, three ribs proceeding from above 
the base of the leaf. 

Triquetrous, having three angles, the faces 
being concave. 

Tristichous, in three rows. 

Triternate, three times divided iu a ternate 
manner. 

Trophosperm, a name for the placenta. 

Truncate, terminating abruptly, as if cut off at 
the end. 

Tryma, drupaceous fruit hke the Walnut. 

Tuber, a thickened underground stem as the 
potato. 

Tubercule, the swollen root of some terrestrial 
Orchids. 

Tuberous, applied to roots in the form of tuber- 
cules. 

Tubular, applied to the regular florets of the 
Compositse. 

Tubular-bell-shaped, applied to a campanu- 
late corolla, which is somewhat tubular m its 
form. 

TuNiCATED, applied to a bulb covered by thin 
external scales, as the Onion. 

Turbinate, in the form of a top. 

TuRio, a young shoot covered with scales sent up 
from an underground stem, as in Asparagus. 

Type, the perfect representation or idea of any- 
thing. 

Typical, applied to a specimen which has emi- 
nently the characteristics of the species, or to 
a species or genus characteristic of an order. 



GLOSSARY. 



73 



Umbel, inflorescence in wliich numerous stalked 
flowers arise from one point. 

Umbellule, a small umbel, seen in the com- 
pound umbellate flowers of many Umbelliferae. 

Umbilicate, fixed to a stalk by a point in the 
centre. 

Umbilicus, the hilura or base of a seed. 

Umbo, a conical protuberance on a surface. 

Umbonate, round, with a projecting point in the 
centre, like the boss of an ancient shield. 

Umbraculiferous, in the form of an expanded 
umbrella. 

Uncinate, provided with an unais or hooked 
process. 

Undecim, eleven, in Greek Endeca. 

Unguis, claw, the narrowed part of a petal ; such 
a petal is called Ungniculate. 

Uni, in composition one, same as Greek Mono. 

Unicellular, composed of a single cell, as some 
Algae. 

Unilateral, arranged on one side, or tm^ned to 
one side. 

Unilocular, ha\'in^ a single loculus or cavity. 

Unisexual, of a single sex, applied to plants 
having separate male and female flowers. 

Urceolate, urn-shaped, applied to a gamope- 
talous globular corolla, with a narrow opening. 

Ustulate, blackened. 

Utricle, a name for a thin-walled cell, or for a 
bladder-like covering. 

Utriculus, applied to a kind of fruit like the 
achene, but with an inflated covering; also to 
the persistent confluent perigone of Carex ; in 
Algse applied to a loose cellular envelope con- 
taining spores. 

Vagina, sheath, lower sheathing portion of some 

leaves. 
Vallecula, an interval between the ribs on the 

fruit of Umbelliferse. 
Valvate, opening by valves, like the parts of 

certain seed-vessels, which separate at the edges 

of the carpels. 
Valvate Estivation and Vernation, when 

leaves in the flower-bud and leaf-bud are ap- 
plied to each other by their margins only. 
Valves, the portions which separate in some 

dehiscent capsules. A name also given to the 

parts of the flower of grasses. 
Vascular tissue, composed of spiral vessels 

and their modifications. 
Vasiform tissue, same as Dotted vessels. 
Veins, hundles of vessels in leaves. 
Velum, veil, the cellular covering of the gills of 

an Agaric, in its early state. 



Velutinous, having a velvety appearance. 
Venation, the arrangement of the veins. 
Ventral, applied to the part of the carpel which 

is next the axis. 
Ventricose, swelling unequally on one side. 
Vermicular, shaped like a worm. 
Vernation, the arrangement of the leaves in the 

bud. 
Verrucose, covered with wart-like excrescences. 
Versatile, applied to an anther which is at- 
tached by one noint of its back to the filament, 
and hence is very easily turned about. 
Verticil, a whorl, parts arranged opposite to 
each other at the same level, or," in other words, 
in a circle round an axis. The parts are said 
to be Verticillate. 
Verticillaster, a false whorl, formed of two 
neaiiy sessile cymes placed in the axils of op- 
posite leaves, as in Dead-nettle. 
Vesicle, another name for a cell or utricle. 
Vessels, tubes with closed extremities. 
Vexillary, applied to aestivation when the vex- 
illum is folded over the other parts of the 
flower. 
Vexillum, standard, the upper or posterior petal 

of a papilionaceous flower. 
ViGiNTi, twenty ; same as Greek Icosi. 
Villous, covered withlong soft hairs, and having 

a wooily appearance. 
ViRGATE, long and strai^lit like a wand. 
Viscous, clammy, like bird-lime. 
ViTELLUS, the embryo-sac w^hen persistent in 

the seed. 
ViTT^, cells or clavate tubes containing oil in 

the pericarp of Umbelliferae. 
Viviparous, plants producing leaf -buds in place 

of fruit. 
Volubile, twining, a stem or tendril twining 

round other plants. 
Volva, wrapper, the or^an which encloses the 
parts of fi-uctification in some Fungi in their 
young state. 

Whorled, same as Verticillate. 
Wings, the two lateral petals of a papilionaceous 
flower, or the broad flat edge of any organ. 

Xanthophyll, yellow colouring matter in plants. 
Xanthos, yellow, in composition Xantho. 
Xylocarpous, fruit which becomes hard and 
woody. 

Zoospore, a moving spore provided with cilia ; 

called also Zoosperm and Sporozoid. 
Zootheca, a cell containing a spermatozoid. 



74 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS. 



ABBEEVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS. 

The names of Authors are abridged in Botanical works by giving the first letter or syllable, 
&c. — Thus, L. stands for Linnaeus ; DC. for De Candolle; Br. for Brown; Lam. and Lnik. for La- 
marck ; Hook, for Hooker ; Hook. fil. for Hooker junior ; Lindl. for Lindley ; Arn. for Arnott ; H. 
and B. for Humboldt and Bonpland ; H. B. and K. for Humboldt, Bonpland, and Kunth ; "W. and 
A. for Wight and Arnott ; Benth. for Bentham ; Berk, for Berkeley ; Bab. for Babiugton, &c. 

The symbol oo or 00 means an indefinite number ; in the case of stamens, it means above 20. 

O means Monocarpic, flowering and fruiting once during life ; duration uncertain. 

O ^ or A. means a Monocarpic annual plant ; flowering and fruiting within the year and then 
dying. 

^ OO (?) or B. means a biennial plant ; flowering and fruiting in the second year. 

If ^ or P. means a perennial plant ; Rhizocarpic. 

5 means a woody plant. 5 means an underslu'ub. 

f^ J or Sh. means a Shrub ; 5 means a Tree under 25 feet ; T. or '5 a Tree above 35 feet. 

-- means a Climber ; ) turning to the left ; ( turning to the right. 

O = Cotyledons accumbent, radicle lateral ; Pleurorhizese. 

II Cotyledons incumbent, radicle dorsal ; Notorhizeee. 

0^ Cotyledons conduplicate, radicle dorsal j Orthoplocese. 

II II Cotyledons plicate or folded, radicle dorsal ; Spirolobese. 

II II II Cotyledons biplicate or twice folded, radicle dorsal ; Diplecolobe^. 

^ Hermaphrodite flower, having both stamens and pistil. 

J Male, staminiferous, staminate, or sterile flower. 

$ Female, pistilliferous, pistillate, or fertile flower. 

J J Unisexual species, having separate male and female flowers. 

J — 5 Monoecious species, having male and female flowers on the same plant. 

J : 5 Dioecious species, having male and female flowers on different plants. 

^ J 5 Polygamous species, having hermaphrodite and unisexual flowers on the same or different 
plants. 

! Indicates certainty as to a genus or species described by the author quoted. 

? Indicates doubt as to the genus or species. 

Indicates absence of a part. 

V. V. sp. or V. V. Vidi vivam spontaneam, indicates that the author has seen a living native 
specimen of the plant described by him. 

v.v. c. Vidi. vivam cultam, indicates that he has seen a living cultivated specimen. 

V. s.sp. or V. s. Vidi siccam spontaneam, indicates that he has seen a dried native specimen. 

v.s. c. Vidi siccam cultam, indicates that he has seen a dried cultivated specimen. 

V. in h. Seen in Herbarium. 



%. 



1. 



^M 



■S> 



